托福TPO46閱讀文本題附答案文檔信息文檔作為關(guān)于“外語學(xué)習(xí)"中"托福"的參考范文，為解決如何寫好實用應(yīng)用文、正確編寫文案格式、內(nèi)容素材摘取等相關(guān)工作提供支持。正文25111字，doc格式，可編輯。質(zhì)優(yōu)實惠，歡迎下載！正文托福TPO46閱讀文本題附答案托福TPO46閱讀文本+題目+答案1.TheOrigiofWritingItwasinEgyptandMesopotamia(modern-dayIraq)thatcivilizationarose,anditistherethatwefindtheearliestexamplesofthatkeyfeatureofcivilization,writing.Theseexamples,intheformoficribedclaytabletsthatdatetoshortlybefore3000havebeendiscoveredamongthearchaeologicalremaioftheSumeria,agiftedpeoplesettledinsouthernMesopotamia,,TheEgyptiawerenotfarbehindindevelopingwriting,butwecannotfollowthehistoryoftheirwritingindetailbecausetheyusedaperishablewritingmaterial.InancienttimesthebanksoftheNilewerelinedwithpapyrusplants,andfromthepapyrusreedstheEgyptiamadeaformofpaper;itwasexcellentinqualitybut,likeanypaper,fragile.Mesopotamia*sriveboastednosuchusefulreeds,butitslanddidprovidegoodclay,andasacoequencetheclaytabletbecamethestandardmaterial.Thoughclumsyandbulkyithasavirtuedeartoarchaeologists:itisdurable.Fire,forexample,whichisdeathtopapyruspaperorotherwritingmaterialssuchasleatherandwood,simplybakesithard,therebymakingitevenmoredurable.SowhenaconquerorsetaMesopotamianpalaceablaze,hehelpedeurethesurvivalofanyclaytabletsinit.Clay,moreover,ischeap,andformingitintotabletsiseasy,factothathelpedtheclaytabletbecomethepreferredwritingmaterialnotonlythroughoutMesopotamiabutfaroutsideitaswell,inSyria,AsiaMinor,Peia,andevenforawhileinCreteandGreece.Excavatohaveunearthedclaytabletsinalltheselands.IntheNearEasttheyremainedinuseformorethantwoandahalfm川ennia,andincertainareastheylasteddowntothebeginningofthecommonerauntilfinallyyielding,onceandforall,tomoreconvenientalternativesoTheSumeriaperfectedastyleofwritingsuitedtoclay.Thisscriptcoistsofsimpleshapes,basicallyjustwedgeshapesandlinesthatcouldeasilybeincisedinsoftclaywithareedorwoodenstylus;scholahavedubbeditcuneiformfromthewedge-shapedmarks(cuneiinLatin)thatareitshallmarkAlthoughtheingredientsaremerelywedgesandlines,therearehundredsofcombinatioofthesebasicformsthatstandfordifferentsoundsorwords.Learningthesecomplexsigrequiredlongtrainingandmuchpractice;inevitably,literacywaslargelylimitedtoasmallprofessionalclass,thescribeSoTheAkkadiaconqueredtheSumeriaaroundthemiddleofthethirdm川enniumandtheytookoverthevariouscuneiformsigusedforwritingSumerianandgavethemsoundandwordvaluesthatfittheirownlanguage.■TheBabyloniaandAssyriadidthesame,andsodidpeoplesinSyriaandAsiaMinor.■TheliteratureoftheSumeriawastreasuredthroughouttheNearEast,andlongafterSumerianceasedtobespoken,theBabyloniaandAssyriaandothekeptitaliveasaliterarylanguage,thewayEuropeakeptLatinaliveafterthefallofRome.■ForthescribesofthesenonSumerianlanguages,trainingwasdoublydemandingsincetheyhadtoknowthevaluesofthevariouscuneiformsigforSumerianaswellasfortheirownlanguage.■Thecontentsoftheearliestclaytabletsaresimplenotatioofnumbeofcommodities—animals,ja,baskets,etc.Writing,itwouldappear,startedasaprimitiveformofbookkeeping.Itsusesoonwidenedtodocumentthemultitudinousthingsandactsthatareinvolvedindailylife,fromsimpleinventoriesofcommoditiestocomplicatedgovernmentalrulesandregulatio?Archaeologistsfrequentlyfindclaytabletsinbatches.Thebatches,someofwhichcontainthousandsoftablets,coistforthemostpartofdocumentsofthetypesjustmentioned:bills,deliveries,receipts,inventories,loa,marriagecontracts,divorcesettlements,courtjudgments,andsoon.Theserecordsoffactualmattewerekeptinstoragetobeavailableforreference-theywere,ineffect,files,or,tousethetermpreferredbyspecialistsintheancientNearEast,archives.Nowandthenthesefilesincludepiecesofwritingthatareofadistinctlydifferentorder,writingsthatdonotmerelyrecordsomematteroffactbutinvolvecreativeintellectualactivity.Theyrangefromsimpletextbookmaterialtoliterature-andtheymakeanappearanceveryearly,evenfromthethirdm川enniumBCEoTheword"key"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOfrequentOessentialOoriginalOfamiliarTheword"virtue"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOpriceOdesignOdesirablequalityOphysicalcharacteristicWhichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationInthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?IncorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformationoOInpartbecauseofitslowcostandeaseofuse,claybecamethepreferredwritingmaterialthroughoutMesopotamiaandwellbeyonditOClaywascheapthroughoutMesopotamia,soclaytabletsfromMesopotamiabecamethepreferredwritingmaterialasfarastheMediterranean,,OForawhile,thedaytabletwasthepreferredwritingmaterialinCreteandGreeceoOMoreover,becausedaywasusedasthewritingmaterialofchoiceinMesopotamia,Syria,AsiaMinor,Peia,andtheMediterranean,itwascheapandpopular,,Whatcanbeinferredfromparagraph2aboutclayasawritingmaterial?OIthadtobebakedbeforeitcouldbewrittenonOItsgoodpointsoutweigheditsbadpoints),OItsdurabilitywasitsmostimportantfeatureforitsuseoOItwasnotavailableinEgyptoInparagraph2,whydoestheauthordiscusstheEgyptianuseofpapyrusasawritingmateria1AOTodescribethesuperiofityofpapyrusoverleattierandwoodasawritingmaterialOToexplainwhywritinginEgyptdidnotdevelopasquicklyasitdidMesopotamiaOToexplainwhyarchaeologists'knowledgeoftheearlyhistoryofwritingreliesmainlyonSumeriancuneiformOToexplainwhytheSumeriapreferredclaytabletsforwritingoverpapyrusAccordingtoparagraph3,allofthefollowingaretrueofcuneiformwritingEXCEPT:OItwascomposedofverysimpleshapesOItwasperfectedbytheancientSumeriaoOItinfluencedthechoiceofmaterialonwhichitwaswritten.OItwasundetoodbyveryfewSumeria.Accordingtoparagraph4,howdidtheAkkadiausetheSumerianlanguage?OTheyusedSumerianforspeakingbutusedtheirownnationallanguageforwriting,,OTheyusedthecomplexcuneiformsigdevelopedbytheBabyloniaandAssyriaratherthantheSumeriansig?OTheydevelopedtheirowncuneiformshapesonclaytabletstoreplacethoseusedbytheSumeriaoOTheyassignednewsoundandwordvaluestothesigofSumeriancuneiform,,Paragraph4aweallthefollowingquestioaboutSumerianwritingintheperiodaftertheSumeriawereconqueredEXCEPT:ODidSumerianliteraturecontinuetoberead?ODidSumeriancontinuetobespoken?ODidscribescomposenewtextsinSumerian?ODidSumerianhavethesamefateasLatinhadafterthefallofRome?Theword"document"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOincludeOinfluenceOorganizeOrecordAccordingtoparagraph5,writingwasfitusedforOsimplebookkeepingOdescriptioofdailyeventsOcountingthecontentsofclaytabletsOgovernmentreportsThephrase"Nowandthen"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOalwaysOoccasionallyOsoonerorlaterOfitandlastAccordingtoparagraph6,largebatchesofclaywritingtabletswerestoredbecausethetabletsOwerebeingproducedquicklyandinlargequantitiesOdidnotserveanypracticalpurposeformostMesopotamiaOcontainedinformationthatneededtobeavailableforfuturereferenceOcouldnotbeusedagainoncetheyhadbeenwrittenonLookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassageoHowever,theSumerianlanguagedidnotentirelydisappear.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Clickonasquare[■]toaddthesentencetothepassageDirectio:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEawerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassageSomesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points,,DragyourawerchoicestothespaceswheretheybelongToremoveanawerchoice,clickonitoToreviewthepassage,clickVIEWTEXTTheearliestexamplesofwritinghavebeenfoundinMesopotamiaanddatetoshortlybefore3000oAwerChoicesWritingwasinventedinthesameareasinwhichcivilizationbeganbytheancientcivilizatioofMesopotamia,AsiaMinorandtheMediterranean,,Thedevelopmentofcuneiformisknownbecauseitwaswrittenonalong-lastingmaterialandbecauseitwaslongandwidelyusedthroughouttheancientNearEastoCuneiformtabletsgenerallydealtwithbusinessandfactualmatte,butothertopics,includingliterature,werealsorecordedandvalued,,WritingwasdevelopedfitbytheSumeriausingwedgeshapedmarks(cuneiform)onclaytabletsandthenbytheEgyptiausingpapyruspaper,,ScribesusingcuneiforminAssyria,Babylon,SyriaandAsiaMinorhadtolearnallthelanguagesthatusedthecuneiformscriptoBatchesofclaytablets,sometimeswithasmanyasathousandtabletseach,areoftenfoundbyarchaeologists,,CommercialRevolutioninMedievalEuropeBeginninginthe1160s,theopeningofnewsilverminesinnorthernEuropeledtothemintingandcirculationofvastquantitiesofsilvercoi.Thewidespreaduseofcashgreatlyincreasedthevolumeofinternationaltrade.Businessprocedureschangedradically.Theindividualtravelingmerchantwhoalonehandledvirtuallyallaspectsofexchangeevolvedintoanoperationinvoh/ingthreeseparatetypesofmerchants:thesedentarymerchantwhoranthe"homeoffice,"financingandorganizingthefirm'sentireexport-importtrade;thecarriewhotraportedgoodsbylandandsea;andthecompanyagentsresidentincitiesabroadwho,ontheadviceofthehomeoffice,lookedaftersalesandprocurements),Commercialcorrespondence,unnecessarywhenonebusinesspeonoveaweverythingandmadedirectbargaiwithbuyeandselle,multiplied.Regularcourierserviceamongcommercialcitiesbegan.Commercialaccountingbecamemorecomplexwhenfirmshadtodealwithshareholde,manufacture,custome,branchoffices,employees,andcompetingfirms.Tollsonroadsbecamehighenoughtofinancewhathasbeencalledaroadrevolution,involvingnewsurfacesandbridges,newpassesthroughtheAlps,andnewinandhospicesfortravele.Thegrowthofmutualtrustamongmerchantsfacilitatedthegrowthofsalesoncreditandledtonewdevelopmentsinfinance,suchasthebillofexchange,adevicethatmadethelong,slow,andverydangerousshipmentofcoiunnecessary,,TheventuresoftheGermanHaeaticLeagueillustratetheseadvancements.TheHaeaticLeaguewasamercantileassociationofEuropeantowdatingfrom1159.Theleaguegrewbytheendofthefourteenthcenturytoincludeabout200citiesfromHollandtoPoland.Acrossregular,well-definedtraderoutesalongtheBalticandNorthseas,theshipsofleaguecitiescarriedfu,wax,copper,fish,grain,timber,andwine.Thesegoodswereexchangedforfinishedproducts,mainlyclothandsalt,fromwesterncities.AtcitiessuchasbrugesandLondon,Haeaticmerchantssecuredspecialtradingconcessio,exemptingthemfromalltollsandallowingthemtotradeatlocalfai.Haeaticmerchantsestablishedforeigntradingcente,themostfamousofwhichwastheLondonSteelyard,awalledcommunitywithwarehouses,offices,achurch,andresidentialquarteforcompanyrepresentatives.Bythelatethirteenthcentury,Haeaticmerchantshaddevelopedanimportantbusinesstechnique,thebusinessregister.Merchantspubliclyrecordedtheirdebtsandcontractsandreceivedaleagueguaranteeforthem.ThisdeviceprovedadecisivefactorinthelaterdevelopmentofcreditandcommerceinnorthernEurope,,Thesedevelopmentsaddeduptowhatonemodernscholarhascalled"acommercialrevolution."Inthelongrun,thecommercialrevolutionoftheHighMiddleAges(AD1000-1300)broughtaboutradicalchangeinEuropeansociety.Oneremarkableaspectofthischangewasthatthecommercialclassescotitutedasmallpartofthetotalpopulation—nevermorethan10percent.Theyexercisedaninfluencefarinexcessoftheirnumbe.Thecommercialrevolutioncreatedagreatdealofnewwealth,whichmeantahigherstandardofliving.Theexistenceofwealthdidnotescapetheattentionofkingsandotherrule.Wealthcouldbetaxed,andthroughtaxation,kingscouldcreatestrongandcentralizedstates.Intheyeatocome,allianceswiththemiddleclassesweretoenablekingstoweakenaristocraticinterestsandbuildthestatesthatcametobecalledmodern。Thecommercialrevolutionalsoprovidedtheopportunityforthousandsofagriculturalworketoimprovetheirsocialposition.TheslowbutsteadytraformationofEuropeansocietyfromalmostcompletelyruralandisolatedtorelativelymoreurbancotitutedthegreatesteffectofthecommercialrevolutionthatbeganintheeleventhcentury,,Evenso,merchantsandbusinesspeopledidnotrunmedievalcommunities,exceptincentralandnorthernItalyandinthecountyofFlande.Mosttowremainedsmall.Thenobilityandchurchmendeterminedthepredominantsocialattitudes,values,andpatterofthoughtandbehavior.Thecommercialchangesoftheelevenththroughfourteenthcenturiesdidhowever,laytheeconomicfoundationforthedevelopmentofurbanlifeandculture,,Accordingtoparagraph1,oneeffectoftheincreaseduseofcashwasthatOanindividualmerchantnolongerperformedallaspectsoftradingoperatioOacompany'shomeofficedeclinedinimportanceOmerchantsnolongerhadtotraporttheirgoodstodistantplacesOthevolumeoftradedeclinedinareaslackingsilverminesTheword"radically”,inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOfundamentallyOquicklyOunexpectedlyOgraduallyThewordoveaw"inthepassageisclosestInmeaningtoOundetoodOincludedOdeliveredOsupervisedAccordingtoparagraph2,whichofthefollowingwasNOTaneffectofthechangeinbusinessprocedures?OAnincreaseincreditsalesOTheuseofcourierservicesbetweencitiesOTheadoptionofsimpleraccountingproceduresOTheimprovementofroadsWhichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?IncorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformationoOCreditsalesandbillsofexchangeweredevicesthatmerchantsdevelopedinordertoincreasetheirmutualtrust,,OMerchantsdevelopedwaystofinancetheirsaleswithouthavingtorelyonslowanddangerousshipmentsofcoioOGreatertrustamongmerchantsledtoanincreaseincreditsalesandtotheuseofbillsofexchangethatmadetheshippingofcoiunnecessary,,OMerchantsbegantotrustoneanotherwhenitbecametooslowanddangerousforasinglemerchanttoshipcoi?Accordingtoparagraph3,HaeaticmerchantsbenefitedbyallofthefollowingEXCEPTOtheuseoftradingcenteindistantcitiesOanewsystemofrecordingcommercialtraactioOtheopeningofoverlandtraderoutesacrossnorthernEuropeOaccesstomarketsinabout200citiesTheword"decisive"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOprobableOdeterminingOhelpfulOlimitingWhydoestheauthorprovidetheinformationinparagraph4thatthecommercialclassesneverexceeded10percentofthepopulation?OToarguethatthewealthcreatedbythecommercialrevolutionbenefitedonlyasmallnumberofpeopleOTochallengetheviewthatthecommercialclassesmadeupamajorityofthepopulationofEuropeOTosuggestareasonthatthecommercialrevolutionendedaroundA.D.1300OToemphasizethepointthatthecommercialrevolutionwasbroughtaboutbyasmallpartofthepopulationAccordingtoparagraph4,whichofthefollowingwasassociatedwiththeriseofmodemstates?OIncreasedwealthfortherulingclassesOTheweakeningofthearistocracyOThedeclineofthemiddleclassOAreductionintaxesTheword"alliances"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoOtraactioOcommunicatioOpartnehipsOconflictsAccordingtoparagraph5,themostimportantresultofthecommercialrevolutionwastoOsimplifytheorganizationofEuropeansocietyOprovideemploymenttoagriculturalworkeOencouragemerchantstobecomecommunityleadeOchangeEuropefromaruraltoamoreurbansocietyParagraph5supportswhichofthefollowinginferencesaboutthecommercialrevolutionbetweenad1000and1300?OIthadverylittleimpactonsocialattitudesandvalues.OItbroughtaboutmajorpoliticalchangesthroughoutEuropeoOItlessenedtheinfluenceofthechurchoOItincreasedthepopulationofsmalltowoLookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage,,WhileItoriginatedintheGermancityofLiibeck,itbegantoexpandin1241whenLiibeckenteredintoamutualprotectiontreatywiththecityofHamburg),Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Clickonasquare[■]toaddthesentencetothepassage),Directio:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEawerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points,,DragyourawerchoicestothespaceswheretheybelongToremoveanawerchoice,clickonitToreviewthepassage,clickVIEWTEXTDuringtheHighMiddleAges(.1000-1300),EuropeunderwentacommercialrevolutionoAwerChoicesMerchantsadoptednewaccountingandtradingprocedurestomakelong-distancetradingmoreefficient,,ThefastertraportationmadepossiblebyimprovedroadsexpandedthevarietyofgoodsthatcouldbebroughttoEuropeantowfromfarawayoTheincreasingimportanceofcommercialtradeledtoadeclineintheinfluenceoftraditionalsourcesofpower,suchaskingsandchurchleadeoTheminingofsilverimprovedthesecurityofcommercialtraactiobyallowingcoitoreplacecreditandbillsofexchangeasthemeaofexchangeoTheHaeaticLeaguewasanassociationofEuropeantowthatobtainedshipping,trading,andfinancialbenefitsforitsmembeoEuropeansocietybecameincreasinglyurban,withbetterlivingconditioandastrongercentralizedgovernment),3.EcosystemDiveityandStabilityCoervationbiologistshavelongbeenconcernedthatspeciesextinctioncouldhavesignificantcoequencesforthestabilityofentireecosystems—groupsofinteractingorganismsandthephysicalenvironmentthattheyinhabit.Anecosystemcouldsurvivethelossofsomespecies,butifenoughspecieswerelost,theecosystemwouldbeseverelydegraded.Infact,itispossiblethatthelossofasingleimportantspeciescouldstartacascadeofextinctiothatmightdramaticallychangeanentireecosystem.AgoodillustrationofthisoccurredafterseaottewereeliminatedfromsomePacifickelp(seaweed)bedecosystems:thekelpbedswerepracticallyobliteratedtoobecauseintheabsenceofseaotterpredation,seaurchinpopulatioexplodedandcoumedmostofthekelpandothermacroalgae0Itisusuallyclaimedthatspecies-richecosystemstendtobemorestablethanspecies-poorecosystems.Threemechanismsbywhichhigherdiveityincreasesecosystemstabilityhavebeenproposed.Fit,iftherearemorespeciesinanecosystem,thenitsfoodwebwillbemorecomplex,withgreaterredundancyamongspeciesintermsoftheirnutritionalroles.Inotherwords,inarichsystemifaspeciesislost,thereisagoodchancethatotherspecieswilltakeoveritsfunctionasprey,predator,producer,decomposer,orwhateverroleitplayed.Second,diveeecosystemsmaybelesslikelytobeinvadedbynewspecies,notablyexotics(foreignspecieslivingoutsidetheirnativerange),thatwoulddisrupttheecosystem,sstructureandfunction.Third,inaspecies-richecosystem,diseasesmayspreadmoreslowlybecausemostspecieswillberelativelylessabundant,thusincreasingtheaveragedistancebetweenindividualsofthesamespeciesandhamperingdiseasetramissionamongindividualsoScientificevidencetoilluminatetheseideashasbeenslowincoming,andmanyshadowsremain.■Oneofthefitstudiestoprovidedatasupportingarelatiohipbetweendiveityandstabilityexaminedhowgrasslandplantsrespondedtoadrought.■ResearcheD.TilmanandJA.Downingusedtheratioofabove-groundbiomassin1988(aftertwoyeaofdrought)tothatin1986(predrought)in207plotsinagrasslandfieldintheCedarCreekNaturalHistoryAreainMinnesotaasanindexofecosystemrespoetodisruptionbydrought.■Inanexperimentthatbeganin1982,theycomparedthesevalueswiththenumberofplantspeciesineachplotanddiscoveredthattheplotswithagreaternumberofplantspeciesexperiencedalessdramaticreductioninbiomass.■Plotswithmorethantenspecieshadabouthalfasmuchbiomassin1988asin1986,whereasthosewithfewerthanfivespeciesonlyproducedroughlyone-eighthasmuchbiomassafterthetwo-yeardrought.Apparently,species-richplotswerelikelytocontainsomedrought-resistantplantspeciesthatgrewbetterindroughtyea,compeatingforthepoorgrowthofless-tolerantspeciesoToputthisresultinmoregeneralterms,aspecies-richecosystemmaybemorestablebecauseitismorelikelytohavespecieswithawidearrayofrespoestovariableconditiosuchasdroughts.Furthermore,aspecies-richecosystemismorelikelytohavespecieswithsimilarecologicalfunctio,sothatifaspeciesislostfromanecosystem,anotherspecies,probablyacompetitor,islikelytoflourishandoccupyitsfunctionalrole.Bothofthese,variabilityinrespoesandfunctionalredundancy,couldbethoughtofasiuranceagaitdisturbancesoTheMinnesotagrasslandresearchhasbeenwidelyacceptedasstrongevidenceforthediveity-stabilitytheory;however,itsfindingshavebeenquestioned,andsimilarstudiesonotherecosystemshavenotalwaysfoundapositiverelatiohipbetweendiveityandstability.Clearly,thisisacomplexissue