EnglishLexicology:ACoursebookChapter1LexicologyandWordsKnowledgePoints:1.Lexicologyisthestudyofthevocabularyorlexiconofagivenlanguage.2.Morphologyisthestudyoftheformsofwordsandtheircomponents.3.Themajorpurposeofstudyinmorphologyistolookatmorphemesandtheirarrangementsinwordformation.4.Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Morphemesmayconstitutewordsorpartsofwords.5.Semanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.6.Generallyspeaking,semanticsfocuseson:1)themeaningofwords;2)themeaningofutterancesincontext;3)themeaningofsentences;4)meaningrelationsbetweensentences;5)meaningrelationsthatareinternaltothevocabularyofalanguage.7.Etymologyisthestudyofthewholehistoryofwords.8.Wordisusedtraditionallytorefertoasequenceoflettersboundedbyspaces.9.Thetermwordisalsousedtorefertoanintermediatestructuresmallerthanawholephraseandyetgenerallylargerthanasinglesoundsegment.10.MajorfeaturesofWords1)Awordisasoundorcombinationofsoundswhichwemakevoluntarilywithourvocalequipment.2)Awordissymbolicandisusedtostandforsomethingelse.3)Thewordisanuninterruptibleunit.4)Awordhastodowithitssocialfunction.5)Awordmayconsistofoneormoremorphemes.6)Wordsarepartofthelargecommunicationsystemwecalllanguage.7)Awordoccurstypicallyinthestructureofphrases.11.Intraditionalgrammar,eightpartsofspeecharedistinguishedinEnglish:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,andinterjection.12.Wordscanalsobeclassifiedintolexicalwordsandgrammaticalwords.13.Generallyspeaking,lexicalwordsarenouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.14.Thelexicalwordscanbeused(functions):1)torepresentourexperienceoftheword;2)torefertopersons,places,thingsandconcepts(e.g.thenounsSmith,London,pineapple,unity);3)todescribequalitiesandproperties(e.g.theadjectivesexcellent,kind,high);4)torepresentactions,processesorstates(e.g.theverbsjump,bite,stay);5)todescribecircumstanceslikemanner(e.g.theadverbskindly,slowly,cheerfully).Furthermore,lexicalwordshavetheirowncontentmeaningsandmaybemeaningfulwhenusedalone.E.g.bookandhousehavetheirowncontentmeanings.15.Grammaticalwordsarewordslikepronouns,prepositions,demonstrative,determiners,conjunctions,auxiliaryverbs,andsonon.16.Semanticorlexicalfield:Asemanticfieldcontainswordsthatbelongtodefinedareaofmeaning.Crystal(1995)definesasemanticfieldasa‘namedareaofmeaninginwhichlexemesinterrelatedanddefineeachotherinspecificways’.Chapter2SomeBasicConceptsandWordMeaningsKnowledgePoints:1.Morphemesaretheultimategrammaticalconstituents,thesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguage.2.Featuresofmorpheme:1)Amorphememaybeacompleteword.E.g.the,fierce,desk,eat,boot,at,fee,mosquitocannotbedividedupintosmallerunitsthataremeaningfulthemselves.2)Amorphememayalsobeawordformsuchasanaffix.e.g.–able,in-,-hood.3)Amorphememaybeacombiningform.e.g.bio-,geo,pre-.3.Phonemesarethesmallestworkingunitsofsoundperse,andtheybuildupintomorphemes.4.Lexeme:Lexemeorlexicalitemisregardedasaunitoflexicalmeaning,whichexistsregardlessofanyinflectionalendingsitmayhaveorthenumberofwordsitmaycontain.Lexemeisconsideredanabstractlinguisticunitwithdifferentvariants(e.g.singasagainstsang,sung).5.Morph:Anyconcreterealizationofamorphemeinagivenutteranceiscalledamorph.Itisaphysicalformrepresentingsomemorphemesinalanguage.6.Allomorphs:Morphswhicharedifferentrepresentationsofthesamemorphemearereferredtoasallomorphsofthatmorpheme.7.Morphemescanbeclassifiedintoboundmorphemesandfreemorphemes.8.Boundmorphemesmustbejoinedtoothermorphemes.e.g.thesuffix–dom,isaboundmorpheme.9.Freemorphemesneednotbeattachedtoothermorphemesandcanoccurbythemselvesasindividualwords.e.g.cat,chair,farm,andbugarefreemorpheme.10.Morphemesmayalsobeclassifiedintoderivationalmorphemesandinflectionalmorphemes.11.Denotation:Denotationofalexemeistherelationshipthatholdsbetweenthatlexemeandpersons,things,places,properties,processesandactivitiesexternaltothelanguagesystem.12.Reference:Therelationshipofreferenceholdsbetweenanexpressionandwhatthatexpressionstandsforonparticularoccasionsofitsutterance.13.Sense:Senseisarelationshipbetweenthewordsorexpressionsofasinglelanguage,independentlyoftherelationship,ifany,whichholdsbetweenthosewordsorexpressionsandtheirreferents.14.Leech(1981)distinguishesseventypesofmeaninginlanguage:conceptualmeaning,connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,collocativemeaning,andthematicmeaning.15.Conceptualmeaning,whichissometimescalleddenotativeorcognitivemeaning,referstomeaningsaspresentedinadictionary.16.Connotativemeaningisthecommunicativevalueofanexpressionbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.17.Socialmeaningreferstothekindofmeaningapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.18.Affectivemeaningcanbeusedtocovertheattitudinalandemotionalfactorsexpressedinaword.19.Reflectedmeaningisthemeaningwhicharisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.20.Collocativemeaningconsistsoftheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.21.Thematicmeaningiswhatcommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemassage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.22.Stem:Thewordtowhichaffixesareaddedandwhichcarriesthebasicmeaningoftheresultingcomplexwordisknownasthestem.23.Root:Astemconsistingofasinglemorphemeislabeledasroot.For,example,walkisarootanditappearsinthesetofword-formsthatinstantiatethelexemewalksuchaswalk,walks,walkingandwalked.24.Freemorpheme:Rootswhicharecapableofstandingindependentlyarecalledfreemorphemes.Singlewordslikeman,book,tea,sweet,cookarethesmallestfreemorphemescapableofoccurringindependently.25.Boundmorpheme:somerootsareincapableofoccurringindependently.Theyalwaysoccurwithsomeotherword-buildingelementattachedtothem.Suchrootsarecalledboundmorphemes,like–mitinpermit,remit,commit,admit,andceiveinperceive,receive,conceive.26.Base:Abaseisalexicalitemtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Theaffixesattachedtoabase.Inotherwords,allrootsarebases.27.Affix:Arootorstemcanbeattachedwithanaffix.Affixesaremorphemeswhichonlyoccurwhenattachedtoothermorphemes.Bydefinitionaffixesareboundmorphemes.28.Threetypesofaffixes:prefix,suffixandinfix.1)prefix:Aprefixisanaffixattachedbeforearoot(orstemorbase)likere-,un-andin-,asinre-make,un-kind,in-decent.2)suffix:Asuffixisanaffixattachedafteraroot(orstemorbase)like-ly,-er,-ist,and-ed,asinkind-ly,wait-er,interest-ing,interest-ed.3)infix:Aninfixisanaffixinsertedintotherootitself.AccordingtoKatamba(1993),infixesareverycommoninsemiticlanguagelikeArabicandHebrew.29.Othertypesofaffixes:inflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes.1)Inflectionalaffixesareusedforsyntacticreasonstoindicatenumber,tense,case,andsoon.2)derivationalaffixescanalterthemeaningorgrammaticalcategoryofthebase.30.Polysemy:Polysemyreferstothesituationinwhichawordhastwoormoredifferentmeanings.Forinstance,thenounbankissaidtobepolysemousbecauseitmaymean:(1)afinancialinstitutionthatpeopleorbusinessescankeeptheirmoneyinorborrowmoneyfrom;(2)araisedareaoflandalongthesideofariver;(3)alargenumberofthingsinarow,especiallypiecesofequipment.31.Featuresofpolysemy:1)Theconceptofpolysemyiscomplexandinvolvesacertainnumberofproblems.AsmentionedbyJacksonandAmvela(2000),wecannotdetermineexactlyhowmanymeaningsapolysemouswordhas,asawordmayhavebothaliteralmeaningandoneormoretransferredmeanings.2)Theisnoclearcriterionforeitherdifferenceorsamenessofmeaning.3)Itdifficulttodistinguishbetweenpolysemy(i.e.onewordwithseveralmeanings)andhomonymy(i.e.severalwordswiththesameshape—spellingand/orpronunciation).4)Polysemyisanessentialconditionforitsefficiency.32.Homonymy:Homonymyreferstoasituationinwhichtherearetwoormorewordswiththesameshape.33.Towtypesofhomonyms(JacksonandAmvela,2000):homographandhomophone1)homograph:Homographreferstoawordwhichisspeltthesameasanotherwordbuthasadifferentmeaningandsometimesadifferentpronunciation.Forexample,lead(metal)andlead(dog’slead)arespeltthesamebutpronounceddifferently.2)homophone:Homophonereferstoawordthatsoundsthesameasanotherwordbutahsitsownspelling,meaningandorigin.Forexample,right,riteandwritearespeltdifferentlybutpronouncedthesame.34.Featuresofhomonymy:1)Therearecasesinwhichtwohomonymswithtotallydifferentmeaningsmaybothmakesenseinthesameutterance.2)Spellingwilloftenhelptodifferentiatebetweenwordswithareidenticalinsound.3)Writingconventionscanhelpremovehomonymy,asEnglishwritingismoreintelligiblethanspeech.Chapter3TheOriginsofEnglishWordsKnowledgePoints:1.TheDevelopmentofEnglish:Indo-EuropeanFamilyItalicGermanicEuropetheNearEastNorthIndia…theNorthGermanictheEastGermanictheWestGermanicbranchbranchbranchEnglishEnglishbelongstotheIndo-Europeanfamily,whichincludesmostofthelanguagesofEurope,theNeareast,andNorthIndia.OnebranchoftheIndo-EuropeanfamilyiscalledItalic,fromwhichLatinandlatertheRomancelanguagesdeveloped.AnotheriscalledGermanic,whichissubdividedintotheNorthGermanicbranch,theEaseGermanicbranchandtheWestGermanicbranch.EnglishisoneofthelanguagesintheWestGermanicbranch.Celtsarebelievedtobethefirstpeoplewho,inhabitedthelandthatwaslatertobecomeEngland.TheycametotheislandaroundthemiddleofthefifthmillenniumBC.TheirlanguageswereyetanotherbranchoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.MostoftheislandofBritainwasoccupiedbytheRomansfromabout43ADuntil410AD.Twostages:FirstStage(BeginningofEnglish):AfterthewithdrawaloftheRomans,theAngles,Saxons,andJutesmovedintoEnglandinabout450ADandbegantotakeitover.ItisatthistimewhentheEnglishlanguagebegan.SecondStage:Bythe10thcentury,theWestSaxondialectbecametheofficiallanguageofBritain.WrittenOldEnglishismainlyknownfromthisperiod.ItwaswritteninanalphabetcalledRunic(北歐古文字).2.ThefourhistoricalperiodsofEnglish:1)Thelanguagefrom450to1066isknownasOldEnglish.2)From1066to1500thelanguageisknownasMiddleEnglish.3)Thelanguagefrom1500to1800isconsideredtheEarlyModernEnglishperiod.4)Thelanguagesince1800iscalledModernEnglish.3.OldEnglishPeriod(450-1066).TherearemanydifferencesbetweenthewayvocabularywasusedinOldEnglishandthewayitisusedtoday.1)theAnglo-Saxonpreferenceforexpressionsthataresynonymous,farexceedsthatfoundinModernEnglish,asdoestheiringenuityintheconstructionofcompounds.2)theabsenceofawide-rangingvocabularyofloanwordsalsoforcesthemtorelymoreonword-formationprocessesbasedonnativeelements.3)thelatterperiodofOldEnglishwascharacterizedbytheintroductionofanumberof‘loantranslations’.4)grammaticalrelationshipsinOldEnglishwereexpressedmainlybytheuseofinflectionalendings.5)OldEnglishisbelievedtocontainabout24,000differentlexicalitems.4.TheMiddleEnglishPeriod(1066-1500).TheMiddleEnglishperiodwasmarkedbyextensivechanges.In1066theNormansconqueredBritain.5.Featuresofthisperiod:1)ThechangesofthisperiodaffectedEnglishbothinitsgrammaranditsvocabulary.2)InflectionsweregreatlyreducedinMiddleEnglish.3)Theinflectionalendingswasduepartlytophoneticchangesandpartlytotheoperationofanalogy.4)MiddleEnglishisparticularlycharacterizedbyintensiveandextensiveborrowingfromotherlanguages.6.EarlyModernEnglishPeriod(1500-1800).ThisperiodisthetransitionalperiodfromMiddleEnglishtoModernEnglish.1)TheprintingpresshelpedtostandardizethespellingofEnglishinitsmodernstages.2)Throughoutthemodernperiod,writtenEnglishhasbeenquiteuniform.3)Inthesixteenthcentury,scholarsbeganseriouslytotalkabouttheirlanguage,makingobservationsongrammarvocabulary,thewritingsystemandstyle.4)Adjectiveslostallendingsexceptforinthecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.7.TheModernEnglishPeriod(1800-present).Featuresofthisperiod:1)ModernEnglishisastheunprecedentedgrowthofscientificvocabulary.2)TheassertionofAmericanEnglishisasadominantvarietyofthelanguage.3)Theemergenceofothervarietiesknownas‘NewEnglishes’.8.‘NewEnglishes’referstonewvarietiesofthelanguagethathavebecomelocalizednotonlythroughtheinfluenceoftheotherlanguagesoftheregionswheretheyareused,butalsothroughbeingadaptedtothelifeandcultureoftheirspeakers.9.ThedifferencesbetweenAmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish:1)Thedifferencesofvocabularyarethemoststriking;2)AmericanspellingandBritisharealsoabitdifferent;3)ThedifferencesbetweenAmericanandBritishpronunciationareperhapsthemostpervasiveofall.10.NativeEnglishvocabularyismadeupofAnglo-Saxonwords.ThiscategorycompriseswordsthatwereusedbytheGermanictribesandarestillusedinModernEnglish.11.TheCelticlanguagedidnothaveanyseriousimpactonEnglish.1)IntheOldEnglishperiod,onlyanumberofCelticwordswereborrowed,andjustafewhavesurvivedintomodernEnglish,sometimesinregionaldialectuse.2)Intheseventeenthcentury,afewmoreCelticwordswereintroducedintoEnglishfromIrishGaelic.12.MajorinfluencesonEnglish:1)TheScandinavianInfluence2)TheNormanConquest3)TheLatinInfluence13.Borrowingistheprocessofimitatingawordfromforeignlanguageand,atleastpartly,adaptinginsoundorgrammartothenativelanguage.14.LatinisnotonlythefirstmajorcontributorofloanwordstoEnglish,butalsooneofthemostimportantsourcesforthecoinageofnewEnglishwords.15.Greekborrowingshavebeencontinuousfromthefifthcenturytothepresent.BorrowingfromFrenchstartedlongbefore1066.16.NewEnglishwordscanbecreatedbyrootcreation,onomatopoeicwords,ejaculationsandwordformation(JacksonandAmvela2000).Chapter4WordFormationinEnglishKnowledgePoints:1.Therearebasicallythreewaysofextendingthewordstock:1)borrowingwordsthatalreadyexistinotherlanguages;2)creatingentirelynewwords;3)formingnewwordsfromexistingresourceswithinthewordstock.2.WordformationreferstothedifferentdevicesusedinEnglishtobuildnewwordsfromexistingones.3.Thebasicdistinctionbetweeninflectionandderivationismainlymorphological.Inflectionresultsintheformationofalternativegrammaticalformsofthesameword,whilederivationcreatesnewvocabularyitems.4.Inflectionreferstoageneralgrammaticalprocesswhichcombineswordsandaffixestoproducealternativegrammaticalformsofwords.5.InflectionsinEnglishareallsuffixesthatoccurattheveryendofaword.6.FunctionsofInflectionInflectioncreatesvariantformsofawordtoconformtodifferentfunctionalrolesinasentenceorindiscourse.1)Inflectionsmodifytheformofawordsothattheycanfitintoaparticularsyntacticslot.2)Sometimesinflectionalmorphemesservemerelytointegrateawordintoitssentence.3)inflectionsattachgrammaticalinformationtothestem,butdonotchangeitsgrammaticalcategory.7.Affixationistheprocesswherebyanaffixisattachedtoabase.8.Derivationreferstothecreationofanewwordbymeansoftheadditionofanaffixtoastem.9.FunctionsofDerivationsDerivationalaffixesservefunctionsverydifferentfromthoseofinflectionalmorphemes.1)Aderivationalaffixcanchangethepartofspeechofaword;2)Derivationaffixesaresocalledbecausetheyareusedtoderivenewwordsandmeanings.3)Derivationalaffixescanchangethewordclassoftheitemtheyareaddedtoandestablishwordsasmembersofthevariouswordclasses.4)Derivationalaffixesdonotalwayscauseachangeingrammaticalclass.10.Derivationalaffixescanbedividedintotwotypes:class-changingandclass-maintaining.11.Class-changingderivationalaffixeschangethewordclassofthewordtowhichtheyareadded.12.Class-maintainingderivationalaffixeschangethemeaningofthederivative.13.Class-changingderivationalaffixesdeterminethewordclassofthestem.14.Thelargestgroupofclass-changingderivativesinEnglishisnominalizerswhichmakenounsoutofadjectivesorverbs.15.Verbalizersareusedtoformverbsfromotherstems.16.Adjectivalizersareusedtoformadjectiveswhenaddedtoagivenstem.17.Adverbializersformadverbswhenaddedtoagivenstem.18.Class-maintainingderivationsdonotchangethewordclassofthestembutitsmeaning.MostderivativesthatareprefixesinEnglishaffectonlythemeaningoftheroot,notitssyntacticclass.19.Compoundingreferstothemethodanddeviceoflanguagetoformnewwordsbycombiningorputtingtogetheroldwords.20.Compoundsarestemsconsistingofmorethanoneroot.21.Theorthographictreatmentofcompoundsisbynomeansconsistent.22.CharacteristicsofCompounds1)Phonologically,thereisalwaysasingleprimarystressinEnglishwords,sothatcompoundsareoftenrecognizedbystresspatternandlackofjuncture.Thecriterionofstressappliesonlytonominalcompounds,andthedistinctionbetweencompoundandidiombecomesfuzzyforverbsandothernominalcategories.2)Syntactically,compoundsaresinglelexicalunitsandhavespecificfeatures.Thegrammaticalrelationsbetweentheconstituentsofthecompoundaresometimesobscure.3)Semantically,compoundstendtohavespecialmeanings.Themeaningsofthewordsinterrelateinsuchawaythatthenewmeaningmaybedifferentfromthemeaningsofthewordsinisolation.23.Acommonsemanticclassificationyieldsfourtypesofcompounds:endocentric,exocentric,copulativeandappositional.24.Anendocentriccompoundconsistsofaheadanditsmodifier.25.Anexocentriccompounddoesnothaveahead,anditsmeaningcannotbeliterallyguessedfromitsconstituentparts.26.Acopulativecompoundhastwosemanticheads.27.Anappositionalcompoundhastwoattributeswhichclassifythecompound.28.Acompoundisalexicaliteminwhichtworootscombinetomakeoneunit.29Accordingtoconstituentelements,compoundscanbedividedintofourmajortypes.1)Nouncompounds:Anouncompoundcanbeformedby‘N+N’,‘N+V-ing’,‘V-ing+N’,‘V+N’,‘Adj+N’,‘V+Adv’,‘Adv+V’,‘Prep+N’,‘Adj+V-ing’andothercombinations.2)Verbcompounds:Averbcompoundcanbeformedby‘N+V’,‘Adv+V’,‘Adj+V’,‘V+V’,‘Adv+N’andothercombinations3)Adjectivecompounds:Anadjectivecompoundcanbeformedby‘Adj+Adj’,‘Adj+N’,‘Adj+N-ed’,‘N+Adj’,‘Adj+V-ing’,‘Adj+V-ed’,‘N+V-ing’,‘N+V-ed’,‘Adv+V-ed’,‘Adv+Adj’,‘Prep+N’andothercombinations.4)Pronouncompounds:Apronouncompoundcanbeformedmostlybythecombinationofsome/any/nowiththing/body/oneandmy/your/her/him/our/them/it+self/selves.30.Conversion:Achangeinwordclasswithouttheadditionofanaffixisknownasconversion.Inotherwords,conversionisaprocessbywhichawordbelongingtoonewordclassistransferredtoanotherwordclasswithoutanychangeinform.31.Therearefourmajorkindsofconversion:fromnountoverb,fromverbtonoun,fromadjectivetonounandfromadjectivetoverb.Noun→verb:toair,toarm,tobottom,tocup,tofish,tomouth,totooth.Verb→noun:acall,acommand,acount,ago,aguess,abook,awalk.Adjective→verb:tobetter,toblind,tobold,tobrave,todirty,toempty.Adjective→noun:best,poor,rich,blind,convertible,daily,double.32.Auxiliaryverbs,adverbs,modalverbs,prepositions,conjunctions,interjectionsandevenaffixescanallactasbasesforconversion.33.Blendingreferstotheprocessofcombiningpartsoftwowordstoformathirdwordwhichcontainssomeofthemeaningofeachpart.Blendsarecompoundsthatarelessthancompounds.34.Structurally,ELL(2006)dividesblendsintofourcommontypes.1)Thefirsttypeofblendsisafullwordfollowedbyasplinter.Blendscanalsobeginwithasplinter,followedbyafullword.2)Thesecondtypeofblendsconsistsoftwosplinters.Therearetwosubtypes.A)Insomecases,thebeginningofonewordisfollowedbytheendofanother.B)Inothercases,bothsplintersarethebeginningofwords.3)Thethirdtypeofblendsconsistsofcompleteoverlap,inwhichapartoftheblendbelongstobothwords.4)Thefourthtypeofblendsinvolvestheembeddingofonewordinanother.35.Blendingoftenresultsinthecreationofnewmorphemesorintheadditionofnewmeaningstooldones.36.Shorteningsincludeclippingandinitialisms.37.Clippingistheprocessbywhichawordofusuallythreeormoresyllablesisshortenedwithoutachangeinmeaningorfunction.38.Featuresofclipping:1)Clippedwordstendtobecasualbutveryuseful.2)Clippingoftenignoresmorphemicboundaries.Therearethreemajortypesofclippings:foreclipping,hindclipping,andmidclipping.3)Onsomerareoccasions,clippingmayaffectbothendsofthesourcewiththemiddlepartretained.Therearethreetypesofphoneticclippings:phoneticforeclipping,phoneticmidclipping,andphonetichindclipping.39.Initialismsaretheresultsofputtingtogethertheinitialletters,oroccasionallythefirsttwoletters,oftheorthographicwordsinaphraseandusingthemaswords.40.Alphabetisms:Wheninitialismsarepronouncedwiththenamesofthelettersinthem,theyarecalledalphabetisms.41.Acronyms:Whentwowordsarepronouncedlikeindividualwords,theyareacronyms.42.Backformationisthemakingofanewwordfromanolderwordwhichismistakenlyassumedtobeitsderivative.43.Communizationofpropernames:TheEnglishvocabularyisalsocharacterizedbythenumberofwordsthatderivefromthenamesofpeople,place,booksorbrands.Thisprocessiscalledthecommunizationofpropernames.44.Metanalysisreferstoananalysisofawordintoparts,inthecourseofwhichtheoriginalstructureofthewordisaltered.Chapter5SenseRelationsKnowledgePoints:1.Senseisaninternalmeaningrelation.Senserelationsarerelationsbetweenwordmeaningsandholdbetweenwordswithinthevocabulary.2.CharacteristicofSenseRelations(1)Themeaningofoneitemcanberelatedtothemeaningofothers.(2)Synonymsareitemsthatmeanthesame,ornearlythesame.(3)Antonymsareitemsthatmeantheopposite.3.AccordingtoJacksonandAmvela(2000),synonymyisoftwotypes:strictsynonymyandloosesynonymy.4.Strictsynonymyreferstothesituationinwhichtwosynonymouswordscanbeinterchangeableinalltheirpossiblecontextsofuse.5.Actually,manywordshavesimilarsensesanddenotationwithouthavingexactlythesamemeaning.6.Loosesynonymsmaybesubstitutableinparticularcontexts,butarenotsubstitutableacrossarangeofcontexts.7.Insynonymy,wecanfindnotonlyasignificantoverlapinmeaningbetweentwowords,butalsosomecontextswheretheycannotsubstituteforeachother.8.Differenceamongsynonyms:1)SynonympairsmaydifferindifferentgeographicalvarietiesofEnglish.2)Synonympairsmaydifferinthestyleorformalityofthecontextinwhichawordmaybeused.3)Synonympairsmaydifferinconnotations.Twowordsmayrefertothesameentity,buttheymayhavedifferentassociativeoremotivemeanings.4)Synonympairsmaydifferintheuseofregisters.5)Synonympairsmaydifferinetymology.6)Synonympairsmaydifferincollocation.Theyoccurindifferentenvironments.9.Antonymyreferstotherelationshipofoppositenessofmeaningbetweenwords.1)Antonymyistypicallyfoundamongadjectivesbutitcanbeextendedtootherwordclass.2)Antonymycoversanumberofdifferenttypesofoppositenessofmeaning.10.Theremaybenotruesynonyms,butthereareseveralkindsofantonyms.Threetypesarecommonlyidentified:gradableantonyms,contradictoryorcomplementaryantonyms,andconverses.11.Gradableantonymsrepresentamore/lessrelationandcanbeviewedastermsattheend-pointsofacontinuum.12.Complementaryantonyms,alsocalledcontradictoryantonymsornon-gradableantonyms,areinaneither/orrelationofoppositeness.13.Converseantonymsrepresenttwo-waycontraststhatareinterdependent.Theyarealsocalledreciprocalantonymsorrelationalopposition,inwhichonememberpresupposestheother.14.Hyponymyreferstothenotionofinclusionwherebywecansaythat‘a(chǎn)nXisakindofY’.Itistheclass-inclusionrelation.15.Ahyponymincludesthemeaningofamoregeneralwordandservesasspecificexamplesofageneralconcept.Themoregeneraltermiscalledthesuperordinateorhypernym.16.Hyponymyisoneofseveralrelationshiptypeswithwhichlanguageusersorganizethelexicon.17.Meronymyisthepart-wholerelationinanypairofitems.Thisisanimportanthierarchicalrelationshipthatisfoundinpairsofwords.18.AccordingtoCruse(2000),thenotionofmeronymyisrelationalratherthanabsolute.19.Meronymicrelationshipsarenotapropertyofpairsofwords.20.Collocationisconcernedwithmeaningarisingfromco-occurrence,morespecificallytomeaningarisingfrompredictableco-occurrenceoftwoormorethantwowords.21.Collocationisthemeaningrelationsthatawordcontractswithotherwordsoccurringinthesamesentenceortext.22.Collocator:Awordwithacertainmea