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9:409:55.15分鐘10:00開始，10:35結(jié)束。SectionAYearsago,doctorsoftensaidthatpainwasanormalpartoflife.Inparticular,whenolderpatients47ofpain,theyweretolditwasanaturalpartofagingandtheywouldhavetolearntolivewithit.Timeshavechanged.Todaywetakepain48Indeed,painisnowconsideredthefifthvitalsign,asimportantasbloodpressure,temperature,breathingrateandpulsein49aswell-being.Weknowthatchronic(慢性的)paincandisrupt(擾亂)a’slife,causingproblemsthat50frommissedworktodepression.That’swhyagrowingnumberofhospitalsnowdependuponphysicianswho51inpainmedicine.Notonlydoweevaluatethecauseofthepain,whichcanhelpustreatthepainbetter,butwealsohelpprovidecomprehensivetherapyfordepressionandotherpsychologicalandsocial52relatedtochronicpain.Suchcomprehensivetherapyoften53theworkofsocialworkers,psychiatrists(心理醫(yī)生)andpsychologists,aswellasspecialistsinpainmedicine.Thismodern54forpainmanagementhasledtoawealthofinnovativetreatmentswhicharemoreeffectiveandwithfewersideeffectsthaneverbefore.Decadesago,therewereonlya55numberofdrugsavailable,andmanyofthemcaused56sideeffectsinolderpeople,includingdizzinessandfatigue.Thiscreatedadouble-edgedsword:themedicationshelpedrelievethepainbutcausedotherproblemsthatcouldbeworsethanthepainitself.2A) B) C)K)D) com M) N)G)O)H)填空的原因，在做第一步之前我先把4級選詞填空中出現(xiàn)頻率最高的后綴全部列舉出來：在中只要出現(xiàn)ly一定為副詞，這是頻率 result結(jié)果 M)respect（尊重） issuesB)involves動詞: 動詞進(jìn)行時(shí)：I)determining決定，確定 動詞過去式：J)limited限制L)comined抱怨E)可能的動詞單三：B)involves形容詞：C)significantH)magnificentJ)limited有限的 seriously嚴(yán)肅的K) whenolderpatients47ofpainpatientsof，確定應(yīng)填入一個(gè)動詞；后半句為theyweretold告訴我們填入過去時(shí)動詞，滿足此題的單詞分別是：J)limitedL)cominedE)relieved，根據(jù)本句中的pain（痛苦確定L)comined（抱怨）與pain（痛苦）的感情方向一致。wetakepain48take,, seriously嚴(yán)肅的 ，所以滿足的單詞有I)determiningN)prompting，2題：causingproblemsthat50frommissedworktodepression.fromto,所以填入動詞單配這兩個(gè)介O)specialize，D)range，兩個(gè)都不認(rèn)識，先放著不管，待會再結(jié)合處理題：nowdependuponphysicianswho51inpainmedicineininphysicianswho，人作主語，并且是復(fù)數(shù)，所以必須是動詞，滿足的單詞依然是O)specialize，D)range，我們可以將50和51題全部填入O)specialize，結(jié)果是必對一道，有時(shí)候放棄是為了得到題：otherpsychologicalandsocial52，前面是psychologicalandsocial這兩個(gè)形容詞，空內(nèi)應(yīng)該填入名詞，otherF)issuesB)involves，二選一，別著急，讓我們看下一題.Suchcomprehensivetherapyoften53 workoftenSuch題：Thismodern54forpainmanagementmodernA)result結(jié)果M)respect（尊重for,M)respect（尊重）for，所以也就排除了它作為動詞的可能性，所以現(xiàn)在知道我為什么將51題的滿足單詞固定為O)specialize，D)range了嗎？題：therewereonlya55numberofdrugsavailable,numbera，我們確定天形容詞修飾number,滿足的有C)significantH)magnificentJ)limited有限的，，看到了only了嗎？答案是limited題：andmanyofthemcaused56sideeffectssideeffects，填入形容詞來修飾吧！滿足的只C)significantH)magnificentJ)，21492121，兩道可以對一道。：一.把握文章中心大意 mainidea歸納總結(jié)全文vs.找二.把握文章重要細(xì)節(jié) vs.定位+對應(yīng)三.推理AB，BA，數(shù)量動態(tài)均等。A的數(shù)量急劇上升，BA30個(gè)，B3Q：Whatconclusioncanbedrawnfromthepassage? vs.WhatconclusioncanbedrawnfromtheAnxiety,thoughunavoidable,canbecopedChildren’sanxietyhasbeenenormouslyChildren’sanxietycanbeeliminatedwithmoreparentalAnxiety,ifproperlycontrolled,mayhelp eMakeexercisepartofyourdailyroutine.Itwillhelpyoucopewithyourownanxietiesandprovideagoodmodelforyourkids.Sometimesanxietyisunavoidable.Butitdoesn’thavetoruinyourlife.Welearnfromthepassagethat thepopulationinthePoconoareaiswildlifeinthePoconoareaisdyingoutthesecurityofthePoconoresidentsisbeingfarmlandsinthePoconoareaareshrinkingThestreams,lakes,meadows(草地),mountainridgesandsthatmakethePoconosanidealceforblackbearshavealsoattractedmorepeopletotheregion.Openspacesarethreatenedbynsforhousingestatesandimportanthabitats(棲息地)areendangeredbyhighwayconstruction.ToprotectthePoconosnaturalbeautyfromirresponsibledevelopment,theNatureConservancy(大自然保護(hù))namedtheareaoneofAmerica’s“LastGreatces”.語義題vs.應(yīng)景含義D)arecapableofachievingperfectresultsinwhatevertheyC)demandotherstogeteverythingabsoluypaytoomuchattentiontodetailsonlytolosetheirmajorcaughtupmadethebestWhatdotheenvironmentalistsmeanbysaying“Notsofast”(Line1,Para.OilexploitationtakesalongTheoildrillingshouldbeDon’tbetooDon’texpectfast四.把握作者態(tài)度Passagewhichconsumerslargelydeterminewhatshallbeproducedbyspendingtheirmoneywhichconsumerslargelydeterminewhatshallbeproducedbyspendingtheirmoneyinthe ceforthoseandservicesthattheywantTheAmericaneconomicsystemisorganizedaroundabasicallyprivate-enterprise,market-orientedeconomyhowthesegoodsandservicesareproduced.Thus,inthehowthesegoodsandservicesareproduced.Thus,intheAmericaneconomicsystemitisthedemandofconsumers,coupledwiththedesireofbusinessmenizeprofitsandthedesireofindividualsizees,thattogetherdeterminewhatshallbeproducedandhowresourcesareusedtoproduceandrespondedtobyAnimportantfactorinamarket-orientedeconomyisthemechanismbywhichconsumerdemandscanbepriceistheregulatingmechanismintheAmericaneconomicofproductiveofproductiveresourcesbutalsocertainrights,includingtherighttodeterminethepriceofaproductortomakecontractwithanotherprivateIntheAmericaneconomy,theconceptofprivatepropertyembracesnotonlytheInline8,paragraph1,"thedesireofindividualstoize es"means Americansareneversatisfiedwith Americanstendtooverstate Americanswanttohave esAmericanswanttoincreasethepurchasingpowerof Thefirsttwosentencesinthesecondparagraphlusthat producerscansatisfytheconsumersbymechanizedconsumerscanexpresstheirdemandsthroughproducersdecidethepricesofsupplyanddemandregulateAccordingtothepassage,aprivate-enterpriseeconomyischaracterizedby privatepropertyandrightsmanpowerandnaturalresourcesownershipofproductivecontractsandpricesThepassageismainlyabout howAmericangoodsarehowAmericanconsumersbuytheirhowAmericaneconomicsystemhowAmericanbusinessmenmaketheirPassageautomaticcreditinstores,restaurants,and s,athome,acrossthecountry,automaticcreditinstores,restaurants,and s,athome,acrossthecountry,andevenabroad,andtheymakebankingservicesavailableasTheygivetheirMoreandmoreofthesecreditcardscanbereadautomatically,makingitpossibletowithdrawordepositmoneyinscatteredlocations,whetherornotthelocalbranchbankisopen.Formanyofus,the"cashlesssociety"isnotonthehorizon—it'salreadyhere.WhileWhilecomputersoffertheseconveniencestoconsumers,theyhavemanyadvantagesforsellerstoo.Electroniccashregisterscandomuchmorethansimplyringupsales.Theycankeepawiderangeofrecords,includingwhosoldwhen,andtowhom.Thisinformationallowsbusinessmentokeeptrackoftheirlistofgoodsbyshowingwhichitemsbeingsoldandhowfasttheyaremoving.Decisionstoreorderorreturngoodsrscanthenbemade.Atthetimethesecomputersrecordwhichhoursarebusiestandwhichemployeesarethemostefficient,staffingassignmentstobemadeaccordingly.AndtheyalsoidentifypreferredcustomersfornelComputersarereliedonbymanufacturersforsimilarreasons.Computer-yzedmarketingreportscanhelptodecidewhichproductstoemphasizenow,whichtodevelopforthefuture,andwhichtodrop.Computerskeeptrackofgoodsinstock,ofrawmaterialsonhand,andevenoftheproductionprocesscessorprocessors,bringbetterandmoreefficientservicestoconsumersthroughtheuseofNumerousothercommercialenterprises,fromtheaterstomagazinepublishers,fromgasandelectricutilitiestoAccordingtothepassage,thecreditcardenablesitsownerto withdrawasmuchmoneyfromthebankasheobtainmoreconvenientservicesthanotherpeopleenjoygreatertrustfromthecashmoneywhereverhewishesFromthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphwelearnthat inthefuturealltheAmericanswillusecreditcreditcardsaremainlyusedintheUnitedStatenowadaysmanyAmericansdonotpayinitisnowmoreconvenienttousecreditcardsthanThephrase"ringupsales"(line2,paragraph2)mostprobablymeans makeanorderofrecordsalesonacashcallthesaleskeeptrackofthegoodsinWhatisthispassagemainlyApproachestothecommercialuseofConveniencesbroughtaboutbycomputersinSignificanceofautomationincommercialAdvantagesofcreditcardsinPassagetototheirfulladultpotential,theireducationmustbeadaptedtothoseExceptionalchildrenaredifferentinsomesignificantwayfromothersofthesameage.Forthesechildrento anddevelopment.Anditisinthepublicschoolsthatwefindthefullexpressionofsociety'sunderstanding—theknowledge,hopes,andfearsthatarepassedontothenextgeneration.Althoughwefocusontheneedsofexceptionalchildren,wefindourselvesdescribingtheirenvironmentaswell.Whiletheleadingactoronthestagecapturesourattention,weareawareoftheimportanceofthe yersandconditions,deservetheopportunitytofullydeveloptheireducationoverthepastthreedecadesindicatesthestrongfeelinginoursocietythatconditions,deservetheopportunitytofullydeveloptheireducationoverthepastthreedecadesindicatesthestrongfeelinginoursocietythatallcitizens,whatevertheirThegreatinterestinexceptionalchildrenshowninofeachchildtoreceivehelpinlearningtothelimitsofhisorhercapacity,whetherthatcapacitybeofeachchildtoreceivehelpinlearningtothelimitsofhisorhercapacity,whetherthatcapacitybesmallorThatconceptimplieseducationalopportunityforallchildren—theadaptinginstructiontochildrenwhoareexceptional,tothosewhocannotprofitsubstantiallyfromregularcourtdecisionshaveadaptinginstructiontochildrenwhoareexceptional,tothosewhocannotprofitsubstantiallyfromregularInparagrah2,theauthorcitestheexampleoftheleadingactoronthestagetoshowthat thegrowthofexceptionalchildrenhasmuchtodowiththeirfamilyandtheexceptionalchildrenaremoreinfluencedbytheirfamiliesthannormalchildrenexceptionalchildrenarethekeyinterestofthefamilyandtheneedsofthesocietyweighmuchheavierthantheneedsoftheexceptionalThereasonthattheexceptionalchildrenreceivesomuchconcernineducationisthat theyareexpectedtobeleadersofthethey eaburdenofthetheyshouldfullydeveloptheirdisabledchildrendeservespecialThispassagemainlydealswith thedifferencesofchildrenintheirlearningthedefinitionofexceptionalchildreninmodernthespecialeducationalprogramsforexceptionalthenecessityofadaptingeducationtoexceptionalFromthispassagewelearnthattheeducationalconcernforexceptionalchildren isnowenjoyinglegaldisagreeswiththetraditionofthewasclearlystatedbythecountry'swillexertgreatinfluenceovercourtPassagespots.Unlikemostoftheworld'svolcanoes,theyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdrifting testhatmakeuptheearth'ssurface;onthecontrary,manyofthemliedeepinthespots.Unlikemostoftheworld'svolcanoes,theyarenotalwaysfoundattheboundariesofthegreatdrifting testhatmakeuptheearth'ssurface;onthecontrary,manyofthemliedeepintheinteriorofa te.Mostofthehotspotsonlyslowly,andinsomecasesthemovementofthetespastthemhaslefttrailsofdeadvolcanoes.Thehotspotsandtheirvolcanictrailsaretonesthatmarkthepassageofthetes.featuresthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereonceTherelativeoffeaturesthatseemtospantheoceanareremindersofwherethetwocontinentswereonceTherelativeofthe Itisnotpossibletodeterminewhethercannotreadilybetranslatedintomotionwithrespecttotheearth'sThecomplementarycoastlinesandcertainFromanysisofthehot-spotpopulationitappearsthattheAfricanteisstationaryandthatithasnotmovedduringthepast30millionyears.developsdeepfissures(cracks);inatleastafewcasesthedevelopsdeepfissures(cracks);inatleastafewcasesthecontinentmaybreakentirelyalongsomeofthesefissures,Asthedomegrows,thatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofanewThusjustasearlierthatthehotspotinitiatestheformationofanewTheauthorbelievesthat themotionofthetescorrespondstothatoftheearth'sthegeologicaltheoryaboutdriftingteshasbeenprovedtobethehotspotsandthetesmoveslowlyinoppositethemovementofhotspotsprovesthecontinentsaremovingThatAfricaandSouthAmericawereoncejoinedcanbededucedfromthefactthat thetwocontinentsarestillmovinginoppositetheyhavebeenfoundtosharecertaingeologicaltheAfricanteshasbeenstablefor30millionover100hotspotsarescatteredallaroundtheThehot-spottheorymayproveusefulinexining thestructureoftheAfricantherevivalofdeadthemobilityofthetheformationofnewThepassageismainlyabout thefeaturesofvolcanictheimportanceofthetheoryaboutdriftingthesignificanceofhotspotsingeophysicaltheprocessoftheformationofPassagetonearbalanceattheageoftonearbalanceattheageofmaturity,andamong70-year-oldstherearetwiceasmanywomenasThereareabout105malesbornforevery100females,butthisratioButthefirsttime,therewillbeanexcessofboysinthosecrucialyearswhentheyaresearchingforamate.Moreimportant,anotherchancefornaturalselectionhasbeenremoved.Fiftyyearsago,thechanceofababy(particularlyaboybaby)survivingdependedonitsweight.Akilogramtoolightortooheavymeantalmostcertaindeath.Todayitmakesalmostnodifference.Sincemuchofthevariationisduetogenes,onemoreagentofevolutionhasgone.Again,Thereisanotherwaytocommitevolutionarysuicide:stayalive,buthavefewerchildren.Fewpeopleareasfertileasinthepast.Exceptinsomereligiouscommunities,veryfewwomenhas15children.NowadaysthenumberofAgain,betweenpeopleandtheopportunityfornaturalselectiontotakeadvantageofithavelost80%ofitspowerinupper-middle-betweenpeopleandtheopportunityfornaturalselectiontotakeadvantageofithavelost80%ofitspowerinupper-middle-comparedtothemediocrityoftoday—everyonebeingthesameinsurvivalandnumberofoffspring—meansthatnaturalselectionForus,thismeansthatevolutionisover;thebiologicalUtopiahasarrived.Strangely,ithasinvolvedlittlephysicalchange.Nootherspeciesfillssomanycesinnature.Butinthepast100,000years—eventhepast100years—ourliveshavebeentransformedbutourbodieshavenot.Wedidnotevolve,becausemachinesandsocietydiditforus.asatsomethingwhollybeyondhisDarwinhadaphrasetodescribethoseignorantofevolution:they"lookatanasatsomethingwhollybeyondhisDarwinhadaphrasetodescribethoseignorantofevolution:they"lookatanorganicbeingasasavagelooksataWhatusedtobethedangerinbeingamanaccordingtothefirstAlackofAfierceAlowersurvivalAdefectiveWhatdoestheexampleofWealthypeopletendtohavefewerchildrenthanpoorNaturalselectionhardlyworksamongtherichandtheThemiddleclasspopulationis80%smallerthanthatoftheisoneofthecountrieswithaveryhighbirthrate.Theauthorarguesthatourbodieshavestoppedevolving lifehasbeenimprovedbytechnologicalthenumberoffemalebabieshasbeenourspecieshasreachedthehigheststageofthedifferencebetweenwealthandpovertyisWhichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthe[A]RationChangesinHumanWaysofContinuingMan'sTheEvolutionaryFutureofHumanEvolutionGoingPassageThatexperiencesinfluencesubsequentbehaviourisevidenceofanobviousbutneverthelessremarkableactivitycalledremembering.Learningcouldnotoccurwithoutthefunctionpopularlynamedmemory.Constantpracticehassuchaneffectonmemoryastoleadtoskillfulperformanceonthepiano,torecitationofapoem,andeventoreadingandunderstandingthesewords.So-calledinligentbehaviourdemandsmemory,rememberingbeingaprimaryrequirementforreasoning.Theabilitytosolveanyproblemoreventorecognizethataproblemexistsdependsonmemory.Typically,thedecisiontocrossastreetisbasedonrememberingmanyearlierexperiences.Practice(orreview)tendstobuildandmaintainmemoryforataskorforanylearnedmaterial.Overaperiodofnopracticewhathasbeenlearnedtendstobeforgotten;andtheadaptiveconsequencesmaynotseemobvious.Yet,dramaticinstancesofsuddenforgettingcanbeseentobeadaptive.Inthissense,theabilitytoforgetcanbeinterpretedtohavesurvivedthroughaprocessofnaturalselectioninanimals.Indeed,whenone'smemoryofanemotionallypainfulitdifficulttounderstandhowthecommonlygradualprocessofforgettingsurvivednaturalselection.Inthinkingabouttheevolutionofmemorytogetherwithallitspossibleaspects,itishelpfultoconsiderwhatwouldtostandout,providingcluesforinferringduration.Withoutforgetting,adaptiveabilitywouldsuffer,forexample,learnedbehaviourthatmighthavebeencorrectadecadeagomaynolongerbe.Casesarerecordedofpeoplewho(byordinarystandards)forgotsolittlethattheireverydayactivitieswerefullofconfusion.Thisforgettingseemstoservethatsurvivaloftheindividualandthespecies.Anotherlineofthoughtassumesamemorystoragesystemoflimitedcapacitythatprovidesadaptiveflexibilityspecificallythroughforgetting.Inthisview,continualadjustmentsaremadebetweenlearningormemorystorage(input)andforgetting(output).Indeed,thereisevidencethattherateatwhichindividualsforgetisdirectlyrelatedtohowmuchtheyhavelearned.Suchdataoffersgrosssupportofcontemporarymodelsofmemorythatassumeaninput-outputFromtheevolutionarypointofview, forgettingforlackofpracticetendstobeobviouslyifagetsveryforgetfulallofasuddenhemustbeverythegradualprocessofforgettingisanindicationofanindividual'ssuddenforgettingmaybringaboutadaptiveAccordingtothepassage,ifaneverforgets, hewouldsurvivehewouldhavealotofhisabilitytolearnwouldbetheevolutionofmemorywouldFromthelastparagraphweknowthat forgetfulnessisaresponsetothememorystoragesystemisanexactlybalancedinput-outputmemoryisacompensationforthecapacityofamemorystoragesystemislimitedbecauseforgettingInthisarticle,theauthortriestointerpretthefunction [B][C] [D]PassageWhenWhenanewmovementinartattainsacertainfashion,itisadvisabletofindoutwhatitsadvocatesareaimingat,for,howeverfarfetchedandunreasonabletheirprinciplesmayseemtoday,itispossiblethatinyearstocometheymayberegardedasnormal.WithregardtoFuturistpoetry,however,thecaseisratherdifficult,forwhateverFuturistpoetrymaybe—evenadmittingthatthetheoryonwhichitisbasedmayberight—itcanhardlybeclassedasLiwords,unhamperedbystops,orqualifyingadjectives,orfiniteWemustpouroutalargestreamofThis,inbrief,iswhattheFuturistsays:foracentury,pastconditionsoflifehavebeenconditionallyspeedingup,tillnowweliveinaworldofnoiseandandspeed.Consequently,ourfeelings,thoughtsandemotionshaveundergoneacorrespondingchange.words,unhamperedbystops,orqualifyingadjectives,orfiniteWemustpouroutalargestreamofInsteadofdescribingsoundswemustmakeupwordsthatimitatethem;wemustusemanysizesoftypeanddifferentcoloredinksonthesamepage,andshortenorlengthenwordsatwill.CertainlyCertainlytheirdescriptionsofbattlesareconfused.ButitisalittleupsettingtoreadintheexnatorynotesthatacertainlinedescribesafightbetweenaTurkishandaBulgarianofficeronabridgeoffwhichtheybothfallintotheriver—andthentofindthatthelineconsistsofthenoiseoftheirfallingandtheweightsoftheofficers:"Pluff!Pluff!Ahundredandeighty-fivenothinkingmancanrefusetoaccepttheirfirstproposition:thatagreatchangeinouremotionallifenothinkingmancanrefusetoaccepttheirfirstproposition:thatagreatchangeinouremotionallifecallsforachangeAlltheThewholequestionisreallythis:haveweessentiallyThispassageis asurveyofnewapproachestoareviewofFuturistaboutmeritsoftheFuturistaboutlawsandrequirementsofliWhenanovelliryideaappears,peopleshouldtry determineitsignoreitsfollowthenewaccepttheFuturistsclaimthatwe increasetheproductionofliusepoetrytorelievemoderndevelopnewmodesofavoidusingadjectivesandTheauthorbelievesthatFuturistpoetry basedonreasonablenewandacceptabletoordinaryindicativeofbasicchangeinhumanmoreofatransientphenomenonthanliPassageWhydosomanyAmericansdistrustwhattheyreadintheirnewspapers?TheAmericanSocietyofNewspaperEditorsistryingtoanswerthispainfulquestion.Theorganizationisdeepintoalongself-ysisknownasthejournalismcredibilityproject.SadSadtosay,thisprojecthasturnedouttobemostlylow-levelfindingsaboutfactualerrorsandspellingandrmistakes,combinedwithlotsofhead-scratchingpuzzlementaboutwhatintheworldthosereadersreallyInotherwords,thereisaconventionalstorylineintheculturethatprovidesabackboneandaInotherwords,thereisaconventionalstorylineintheculturethatprovidesabackboneandaready-madenarrativestructureforotherwiseconfusingThereThereexistsasocialandculturaldisconnectbetweenjournalistsandtheirreaders,whichhelps inwhy"standard tes"ofthenewsroomseemalientomanyreaders.Inarecentsurvey,questionnairesweresentreportersinfivemiddlesizecitiesaroundthecountry,plusonelargemetropolitanarea.Thenresidentsinthesecommunitieswerephonedatrandomandaskedthesamequestions.RepliesshowthatcomparedwithotherAmericans,journalistsaremorelikelytoliveinupscaleneighborhoods,haveinacommunity.dailyclashofworldviewsbetweenreportersandtheirdailyclashofworldviewsbetweenreportersandtheirdiversityprogram,nowfocusednarrowlyonraceandgender,andlookforreporterswhodifferbroadlybyIfitdid,itwouldopenupemployeeswhoseattitudesvastlyannoythecustomers.Thenitsponsorslotsofdiversityprogram,nowfocusednarrowlyonraceandgender,andlookforreporterswhodifferbroadlybyIfitdid,itwouldopenupvalues,values,education,andWhatisthepassagemainlyNeedsofthereadersallovertheCausesofthepublicdisappointmentaboutOriginsofthedecliningnewspaperAimsofajournalismcredibilityTheresultsofthejournalismcredibilityprojectturnedouttobe quitesomewhatveryratherThebasicproblemofjournalistsaspointedoutbythewriterliesintheir workingconventionalworldeducationalDespiteitsefforts,thenewspaperindustrystillcannotsatisfythereadersowingtoits failuretorealizeitsrealtendencytohireannoyinglikelinesstodoinaccurateprejudiceinmattersofraceandPassageAhistoryoflongandeffortlesssuccesscanbeadreadfulhandicap,but,ifproperlyhandled,itmay eadriving.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredjustsuchaglowingperiodaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWar,ithadamarketeightlargerthananycompetitor,givingitsindustriesunparalleledeconomiesofscale.Itsscientistsweretheworld'sbest,itsworkersthemostskilled.AmericaandAmericanswereprosperousbeyondthedreamsoftheEuropeansandAsianswhoseeconomiesthewarhaddestroyed.Itwasinevitablethatthisprimacyshouldhavenarrowedasothercountriesgrewricher.Justasinevitably,theretreatfrompredominanceprovedpainful.Bythemid1980sAmericanshadfoundthemselvesatalossovertheirfadingindustrialcompetitiveness.SomehugeAmericanindustries,suchasconsumerelectronics,hadshrunkorvanishedinthefaceofforeigncompetition.By1987therewasonlyoneAmericanevisionmakerleft,Zenith.(Nowthereisnone:ZenithwasboughtbySouthKorea'sLGElectronicsinJuly.)Foreignmadecarsandtextilesweresweeintothedomesticmarket.America'smachine-toolindustrywasontheropes.Forawhileitlookedasthoughthemakingofsemiconductors,whichAmericahadinventedandwhichsatattheheartofthenewcomputerage,wasgoingtobethenextcasualty.Allofthiscausedacrisisofconfidence.Americansstoppedtakingprosperityforgranted.Theybegantobelievethattheirwayofngbusinesswasfailing,andthattheir eswouldthereforeshortlybegintofallaswell.Themid-1980sbroughtoneinquiryafteranotherintothecausesofAmerica'sindustrialdecline.Theirsometimessensationalfindingswerefilledwithwarningsaboutthegrowingcompetitionfromoverseas.Howthingshavechanged!In1995theUnitedStatescanlookbackonfiveyearsofsolidgrowthwhileJapanhasbeenstruggling.FewAmericansattributethissolelytosuchobviouscausesasadevalueddollarortheturningofthebusinesscycle.Selfdoubthasyieldedtoblindpride."Americanindustryhaschangeditsstructure,hasgoneonadiet,haslearnttobemorequickwitted,"accordingtoRichardCavanagh,executivedeanofHarvard'sKennedySchoolofernment."ItmakesmeproudtobeanAmericanjusttoseehowourbusinessesareimprovingtheirproductivity,"saysStephenMooreoftheCatoInstitute,athinkinWashington,DC.AndWilliamSahlmanoftheHarvardBusinessSchoolbelievesthatpeoplewilllookbackonthisperiodas"agoldenageofbusinessmanagementintheUnitedStates."TheU.S.achieveditspredominanceafterWorldWarIIbecause ithadmadepainstakingeffortstowardsthisitsdomesticmarketwaseighttimeslargerthanthewarhaddestroyedtheeconomiesofmostpotentialtheunparalleledsizeofitsworkhadgivenanimpetustoitsThelossofU.S.predominanceintheworldeconomyinthe1980sismanifestedinthefactthattheAmerican TVindustryhadwithdrawntoitsdomesticsemiconductorindustryhadbeentakenoverbyforeignmachine-toolindustryhadcollapsedaftersuicidalautoindustryhadlostpartofitsdomesticWhatcanbeinferredfromtheItishumannaturetoshiftbetweenself-doubtandblindIntensecompetitionmaycontributetoeconomicTherevivaloftheeconomydependsoninternationalAlonghistoryofsuccessmaypavethewayforfurtherTheauthorseemstobelievetherevivaloftheU.S.economyinthe1990scanbeattributedtothe turningofthebusinessrestructuringofimprovedbusinesssuccessinPassageSpecialisationcanbeseenasaresponsetotheproblemofanincreasingaccumulationofscientificknowledge.Bysplittingupthesubjectmatterintosmallerunits,onemancouldcontinuetohandletheinformationanduseitasthebasisforfurtherresearch.Butspecialisationwasonlyoneofaseriesofrelateddevelopmentsinscienceaffectingtheprocessofcommunication.Anotherwasthegrowingprofessionalisationofscientificactivity.Noclear-cutdistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenprofessionalsandamateursinscience:exceptionscanbefoundtoanyrule.Nevertheless,theword'amateur'doescarryaconnotationthattheconcernedisnotfullyintegratedintothescientificcommunityand,inparticular,maynotfullyshareitsvalues.Thegrowthofspecialisationinthenineteenthcentury,withitsconsequentrequirementofalonger,morecomplextraining,impliedgreaterproblemsforamateurparticipationinscience.Thetrendwasnaturallymostobviousinthoseareasofsciencebasedespeciallyonamathematicalorlaboratorytraining,andcanbeillustratedintermsofthedevelopmentofgeologyintheUnitedKingdom.AcomparisonofBritishgeologicalpublicationsoverthelastcenturyandahalfrevealsnotsimplyanincreasingemphasisontheprimacyofresearch,butalsoachangingdefinitionofwhatconstitutesanacceptableresearchpaper.Thus,inthenineteenthcentury,localgeologicalstudiesrepresentedworthwhileresearchintheirownright;but,inthetwentiethcentury,localstudieshaveincreasingly eacceptabletoprofessionalsonlyiftheyincorporate,andreflecton,thewidergeologicalpicture.Amateurs,ontheotherhand,havetopursuelocalstudiesintheoldway.Theoverallresulthasbeentomakeentrancetoprofessionalgeologicaljournalsharderforamateurs,aresultthathasbeenreindbythewidespreadintroductionofrefereeing,firstbynationaljournalsinthenineteenthcenturyandthenbyseverallocalgeologicaljournalsinthetwentiethcentury.Asalogicalconsequenceofthisdevelopment,separatejournalshavenowappearedaimedmainlytowardseitherprofessionaloramateurreadership.Arathersimilarprocessofdifferentiationhasledtoprofessionalgeologistscomingtogethernationallywithinoneortwospecificsocieties,whereastheamateurshavetendedeithertoremaininlocalsocietiesortocometogethernationallyinadifferentway.Althoughtheproc