企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群中英文對照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)PAGEPAGE1企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群中英文對照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群中英文對照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)(文檔含英文原文和中文翻譯)企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的概念分析一個產(chǎn)業(yè)集群被定義為集中于某一經(jīng)濟(jì)區(qū)域的企業(yè)的集合。產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的出現(xiàn)在全球各研究領(lǐng)域中日益受到關(guān)注,例如戰(zhàn)略管理和國際貿(mào)易領(lǐng)域。筆者認(rèn)為發(fā)展區(qū)域產(chǎn)業(yè)集群可以提升企業(yè)間的緊密協(xié)作和合作，幫助企業(yè)追逐其全球市場的競爭力。同樣,許多參與企業(yè)可以迅速獲得產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的整體效益。產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的相關(guān)研究，特別是企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群，由于缺乏定量研究的嘗試,而限制了定性研究。本研究企圖將企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的幾個相關(guān)理論歸類分成可測量的兩個部分：貿(mào)易基礎(chǔ)因素的互相依存性,；非貿(mào)易的社會文化基礎(chǔ)因素的相互作用。以期望未來能夠引導(dǎo)研究人員進(jìn)行定量研究。1介紹雖然全球化和持續(xù)的技術(shù)革命給現(xiàn)代企業(yè)帶來了很多的挑戰(zhàn),同時也給企業(yè)聯(lián)合提供了很多的機(jī)遇。尤其是那些缺少成長所需的國內(nèi)市場的較小國家的企業(yè)。其國家對企業(yè)發(fā)展所需的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)比較薄弱，行業(yè)的支持力度有限。認(rèn)識到這一點,許多國家努力得提升區(qū)域集群的發(fā)展，讓企業(yè)能夠發(fā)揮它們的能力和競爭優(yōu)勢，通過資源、創(chuàng)新能力和知識的共享能與世界上最強(qiáng)的競爭對手對抗。許多高新技術(shù)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群公認(rèn)的價值(例如：Bresnahan,2001；波特,1998；Saxenian,1994；ZuckerSaxenian等，1998)，他們提供的發(fā)展、轉(zhuǎn)換、應(yīng)用所需要的知識,不斷創(chuàng)新都闡明了它的優(yōu)勢。產(chǎn)業(yè)集群成功的開發(fā)了，但是很多國家還是顯示出很有問題。波特(1990)突出的四個屬性：因素條件，需求，配套行業(yè)及競爭對一個國家的行業(yè)發(fā)展是必要的。波特(1990)認(rèn)為建立和維護(hù)區(qū)域競爭優(yōu)勢的基礎(chǔ)取決于一個高度本土化的過程。即當(dāng)?shù)嘏涮自O(shè)施的開發(fā)、教育機(jī)構(gòu)、高質(zhì)量的勞動力市場、貿(mào)易機(jī)會、共享的文化、產(chǎn)業(yè)氛圍都是區(qū)位優(yōu)勢發(fā)展的因素。企業(yè)可以通過網(wǎng)絡(luò)的跨文化交流,利用可獲得的資源和功能，不斷進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新的刺激。2理論基礎(chǔ)2.1波特的鉆石模型一個集群,有時被稱為一個工業(yè)區(qū),可以被定義為集中于某一經(jīng)濟(jì)區(qū)域的企業(yè)的集合。一個企業(yè)集群可以促成每個企業(yè)快捷有效的利用不同資源和擁有協(xié)作的能力（羅遜，1999）。波特（1998）的觀點為集群可作為改善商業(yè)環(huán)境的結(jié)果。他進(jìn)一步解釋了產(chǎn)業(yè)集群是集中于某一特定的社會領(lǐng)域且地理位置相互緊鄰的企業(yè)和機(jī)構(gòu)，具備與共性和互補(bǔ)性(波特,1998)。集群產(chǎn)生的協(xié)同效應(yīng)的價值要大于每一個個體機(jī)構(gòu)總和的價值。波特(1990)有關(guān)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的研究專注于特定行業(yè)是為了創(chuàng)造更好的理論框架。雖然研究工業(yè)開發(fā)和國際競爭力的國家很多，波特(1998)認(rèn)為有四個主要的屬性構(gòu)成鉆石競爭優(yōu)勢。它們是：因素的條件，需求狀況，相關(guān)配套行業(yè)，公司戰(zhàn)略，結(jié)構(gòu)和競爭。因素條件是一個行業(yè)所必需的投入，包括高質(zhì)量的人力資源、先進(jìn)的技術(shù)和自然資源。需求狀況是市場的本質(zhì),它促進(jìn)企業(yè)通過分化和專業(yè)化的方式尋找新資源的價值。而配套行業(yè)指的是當(dāng)?shù)鼐邆涔┴浤芰Φ墓?yīng)商提供企業(yè)所需的資料在市場上進(jìn)行競爭。最后,公司戰(zhàn)略、結(jié)構(gòu)和競爭促進(jìn)當(dāng)?shù)氐母偁帲卮偈蛊髽I(yè)投資和創(chuàng)新的分化。四分的鉆石代表影響區(qū)域競爭力和創(chuàng)新的四種基本屬性。每一個屬性具備增強(qiáng)性，在一個區(qū)域集群中具有獨特和重要的作用，作為一個系統(tǒng)在運作。另外,該系統(tǒng)在不同的地點是不同的，因此,它解釋了為什么有些公司或行業(yè)在特殊的地點會成功。2.2集體效率另一個研究產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的主要途徑的是Schmitz(1995、1997)對“集體效能”概念的總結(jié)。術(shù)語“集體效能”已被用來形容企業(yè)從外部經(jīng)濟(jì)通過聯(lián)合行動所獲得收益(Schmitz,1995,1997)。外部經(jīng)濟(jì)活動發(fā)生在市場價格交易不能完全整合優(yōu)勢或交易活動相聯(lián)系的費用時。一個顯著的例子它的好處在于一個產(chǎn)業(yè)集群可以提供給會員企業(yè)的比較容易進(jìn)入的嵌入式效益?？偟膩碚f,公司在產(chǎn)業(yè)集群中可以享受：（1）專業(yè)的供應(yīng)商所需的原料和必要的服務(wù)。（2）當(dāng)?shù)氐膭趧?、?yōu)質(zhì)的需要與重要的技能和知識。（3）相關(guān)技術(shù)和“傳染性漂浮在空中”的思想是產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的氛圍，并最終可能影響到所有參與特定產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的企業(yè)。外部經(jīng)濟(jì)性在闡釋現(xiàn)代產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的成長方面非常重要，但也必須深思熟慮的工作,也就是有意識地追求共同行動(Brusco,1990;Pedersenetal,1994;Schmitz,1995,1997)。這種聯(lián)合行動的兩種類型:個體企業(yè)、聯(lián)合力量的商業(yè)協(xié)會和生產(chǎn)者聯(lián)盟。這兩者之間的區(qū)別,一個能區(qū)分橫向合作(即競爭者之間),和垂直合作(即供應(yīng)鏈關(guān)系)。這些企業(yè)在各種不同的制度形式下通過合作、協(xié)作關(guān)系進(jìn)行的聯(lián)行動所產(chǎn)生的收益(麥考密克,1999)。最引人注目的合作關(guān)系形式發(fā)生在雙邊的單個企業(yè)之間,例如水平關(guān)系的建立，使原來競爭的企業(yè)或下一輪的革新或新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)的買家和供應(yīng)商之間的垂直合作去分享專業(yè)設(shè)備(漢弗萊&Schmitz,1996;Nadvi,1996)。2.3靈活專業(yè)化的框架在當(dāng)今的商業(yè)環(huán)境，組織過程的新形式能夠協(xié)助企業(yè)更好地應(yīng)付日益苛刻的環(huán)境要求。有一項研究是關(guān)于新形式的網(wǎng)絡(luò)結(jié)構(gòu)，通過交易、有形和無形資源的交流鏈接各企業(yè)。這些垂直統(tǒng)一企業(yè)考慮靈活專門的供應(yīng)鏈管理功能，不斷增強(qiáng)其持久的競爭力。當(dāng)所有專業(yè)企業(yè)被視為一個整體網(wǎng)絡(luò),這個特定的網(wǎng)絡(luò)具有靈活性(Piore&Sabel,1984年)。這里的靈活指的是總體能力對瞬息萬變環(huán)境的適應(yīng)，因為各參與的企業(yè)產(chǎn)生的獨特產(chǎn)品可滿足環(huán)保要求(Storper&Christopherson,1987年)。靈活專業(yè)行業(yè)的特點是為高度分化的市場生產(chǎn)各式各樣能夠不斷適應(yīng)環(huán)境條件變化和市場拓展所需的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)?？梢酝ㄟ^開發(fā)靈活和廣泛適用的技術(shù),以便創(chuàng)新，而不是一次性的把資金全投資于刻板的技術(shù)上,并利用工人所擁有的技能生產(chǎn)開發(fā)更多的產(chǎn)品和或服務(wù)(Piore&Sabel,1984；Starkey&Barnatt,1997)。這種戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃是一種結(jié)合分化和效率的策略。產(chǎn)業(yè)集群包括幾個垂直統(tǒng)一能形成靈活專業(yè)化的企業(yè)。許多專業(yè)化的企業(yè)比單一的企業(yè)在區(qū)域網(wǎng)路能夠更快地適應(yīng)不斷變化的市場需求，就像傳統(tǒng)的大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)方式。垂直解體既作為降低固定成本的手段和一種增加產(chǎn)品品種競爭的方式(Storper,1993)。獨立的靈活網(wǎng)絡(luò)能使專業(yè)企業(yè)生產(chǎn)不同范圍的產(chǎn)品；這就是眾所周知的集群內(nèi)的“豐富的交易網(wǎng)絡(luò)系統(tǒng)”(Starkey&Barnatt,1997)。3對公司企業(yè)集群投入適度的構(gòu)建產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的術(shù)語被各實踐家和學(xué)者廣泛應(yīng)用。但對其靈活的定義反而造成冷淡的效果。因此,清楚的判斷與定義集群的價值是很重要的。從眾多相關(guān)集合的研究，馬歇爾被認(rèn)為是最先創(chuàng)造“工業(yè)園區(qū)”術(shù)語的產(chǎn)業(yè)集群發(fā)展相關(guān)理論的先鋒。他發(fā)表了兩篇文章,《經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)原理》(1890)和《工業(yè)和貿(mào)易》(1919),被認(rèn)為頗具影響力的有關(guān)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群發(fā)展的相關(guān)研究。他認(rèn)為產(chǎn)業(yè)集群作為“多者中的一個，一個在多者中”(馬歇爾,1919),是指企業(yè)處于產(chǎn)業(yè)集群中的情景。其中之一是獨特專業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)活動，而導(dǎo)致的一系列相互聯(lián)系的經(jīng)濟(jì)運作和社會相依性，由獨特企業(yè)建立的一個網(wǎng)絡(luò)供應(yīng)鏈以降低地理優(yōu)勢。分析“產(chǎn)業(yè)集群”和一家企業(yè)的“產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的投入”兩者之間存在的根本性差異。表1產(chǎn)業(yè)集群與產(chǎn)業(yè)集群的投入的差異鉆石模型集體效率靈活的專業(yè)化集群定義一群目前處于某一特定地理位置與特定領(lǐng)域的互聯(lián)的企業(yè)與機(jī)構(gòu)一群互補(bǔ)的生產(chǎn)制造商制造的類似產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)集群是包含很多處于競爭與合作的復(fù)雜網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的企業(yè)工業(yè)區(qū)關(guān)鍵組件企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略結(jié)構(gòu)和競爭；因素條件；需求狀況；配套行業(yè)協(xié)同作用；聯(lián)合行動；互補(bǔ)靈活性范圍經(jīng)濟(jì)創(chuàng)新學(xué)習(xí)產(chǎn)品差異化重點目標(biāo)價值創(chuàng)造整體動態(tài)成本效率窄靜態(tài)創(chuàng)造價值窄動態(tài)相關(guān)研究波特(1990,1998)；Bresnahan,Gambardella,Saxenian(2001)；Brusco(1990)；佩德森(1994)；Schmitz(1995、1997)。Piroe，Sabel(1984)；斯達(dá)克，Barnatt(1997)；術(shù)語“產(chǎn)業(yè)集群投入”對一家企業(yè)的績效評價結(jié)果比較適合。Tallmanetal(2004)對兩種類型的競爭性特征區(qū)分可以進(jìn)一步發(fā)展為企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群投入的競爭優(yōu)勢:(一)那些以貿(mào)易和非貿(mào)易的依賴性為依據(jù)。一家企業(yè)的貿(mào)易在經(jīng)濟(jì)領(lǐng)域中存在依賴性,包括正式交換的價值。他們包括許可,聯(lián)盟，收購或?qū)I(yè)技能在正式交換中的發(fā)生(Tallmanetal,2004)。在經(jīng)濟(jì)領(lǐng)域中存在的依賴性反映了關(guān)于工作中有效配置利用資源的交易原則。Storper(1995,1997)觀察到貿(mào)易的依賴性容易分散隨著行業(yè)成熟。這可歸結(jié)為在產(chǎn)業(yè)集群中對經(jīng)濟(jì)交易過程了解。一家企業(yè)的貿(mào)易和非貿(mào)易依賴性的重要性在于產(chǎn)業(yè)集群將隨時間而改變。最初，經(jīng)濟(jì)領(lǐng)域?qū)λ膬?yōu)勢得到最大的關(guān)注，比如，交易費用經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)，代理理論和企業(yè)的經(jīng)營績效。傳統(tǒng)的集群優(yōu)勢經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)關(guān)于降低企業(yè)生產(chǎn)成本，供應(yīng)商共同開發(fā)，專業(yè)的勞動力開發(fā)，技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)(Krugman,1991;Piore&Sabel,1984;Starkey&Barnatt,1997;Tallman,2004)。全球化的出現(xiàn)有望獲得這些優(yōu)勢減少鄰近的重要性。作為集群能夠持續(xù)保持競爭優(yōu)勢，而研究的重點逐漸轉(zhuǎn)移到非貿(mào)易的依賴性。這些競爭優(yōu)勢已經(jīng)被歸因于交互作用，產(chǎn)生的信任能使產(chǎn)業(yè)集群發(fā)展，Mathews(2003)指出的“學(xué)習(xí)適應(yīng)模式”。本質(zhì)上重要性的“產(chǎn)業(yè)氛圍”或“知識傳播”是集體的競爭優(yōu)勢的成長形式。Tallmanetal(2004)利用企業(yè)集群投入的競爭性特征，即貿(mào)易和非交易的依存性，構(gòu)建可測量的可能變量/部件，在深入研究、探討理論基礎(chǔ)的基礎(chǔ)上可以概括為以下表格。表2企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群投入組件的適度構(gòu)建構(gòu)建理論焦點變量/部件選擇的研究交易依存性外在因素：?經(jīng)濟(jì)/外匯交易?資源高效配置,?公司間的合作?技術(shù)專業(yè)化?互補(bǔ)?顯性知識共享合同協(xié)議：?供應(yīng)鏈伙伴?廣泛的產(chǎn)品模仿?企業(yè)的合作程度?技術(shù)能力?會員公司?經(jīng)濟(jì)聯(lián)合活動?網(wǎng)絡(luò)交易?知識獲取?技術(shù)許可Brusco(1990)；Pedersenetal(1994)；Schmitz(1995,1997)；Saxenian(1994)；Zucker,Darby,&Armstrong(1998)；非貿(mào)易依存性內(nèi)源性因素：?社會文化關(guān)系?協(xié)同隱性知識創(chuàng)造?區(qū)位優(yōu)勢?支援機(jī)構(gòu)?共同市場?經(jīng)營方向?專業(yè)的勞動力地緣優(yōu)勢?共同的社會歷史?共享文化背景?學(xué)院/實驗室支持?政府支持?運輸?基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施?社會網(wǎng)絡(luò)?知識創(chuàng)造?集合的人力資源?研究型大學(xué)Porter(1990,1998)；McCormick(1999)；Humphrey&Schmitz(1996)；Tallmanetal(2004)；

The

Involvement

of

Firms

in

Industrial

Clusters:

A

Conceptual

AnalysisNiu,

Keui-HsienMaterialSource:InternationalJournal

ofManagement．Dec．2009，Vol26Issue

3，p445-455，11p；Business

Source

PremierAnindustrialclusterisdefinedasageographicalandsectoralconcentrationandcombinationoffirms.Theworldwideemergenceofindustrialclustershasincreasinglyattractedattentionsinresearchfieldssuchasstrategicmanagementandinternationalbusiness.Itisarguedthatthedevelopmentofregionalindustrialclusterspromotestighterinter-firmcoordinationandfrequentcollaborationwhichhelpparticipatingfirmsinpursuingcompetitivepositionsinglobalmarket.Assuch,anumberoffirmsmayquicklyrisetoglobalprominenceduetothebenefitsoftheirinvolvementinanindustrialcluster.Industrialclusterrelatedresearch;however,arelimitedtoqualitativestudiesduetothelackoftheattemptsofmeasuringandoperationalzingafirm’sinvolvementinanindustrialcluster.Thisstudyattemptstoincorporateseveralrelatedtheoriesandcategorizesafirm’sinvolvementinanindustrialclusterintotwomeasurablecomponents:tradedinterdependences,whicharemoretransactionalbasedfactors,andnon-tradedinterdependences,whicharemoresocio-culturalbasedfactors,inhopeoffacilitatingresearcherstoconductquantitativeresearchinthefuture.1IntroductionWhileglobalizationandthecontinuingtechnologicalrevolutionprovideanumberofchallengesforfirmstoday,theyhavealsocombinedtoprovidemanyopportunities.Thisisparticularlytrueforcompaniesinsmallercountriesthatmaylackthedomesticmarketnecessaryforgrowth,andforcompaniesindevelopingcountrieswithweakinfrastructuresandlimitedsupportingindustries.Recognizingthis,manycountrieshavepromotedthedevelopmentofregionalclusterswherefirmscandeveloptheircompetencesandcompetitiveadvantagesagainsttheworld’sbestcompetitorsbysharingresources,innovativecapabilities,andknowledge.Manyhaveacknowledgedthevalueofclustersinhightechnologyindustries(e.g.Bresnahanetal,2001;Porter,1998;Saxenian,1994;Zuckeretal.1998)，whichillustratestheadvantagestheyprovideforthedevelopment,transfer,andapplicationofknowledgenecessaryforcontinualinnovation.Successfuldevelopmentofsuchclusters,however,mayproveproblematicinmanycountries.Porter(1990)highlightedfourattributesnecessaryforthedevelopmentofanindustrywithinacountry:factorconditions,demand,supportingindustries,andcompetition.Porter(1990)haspositedthatthefoundationforcreatingandsustainingregionalcompetitiveadvantagedependsonahighlylocalizedprocess.Thatis,localdevelopmentofsupportingfacilities,educationalinstitutions,ahighqualitylaborpool,tradeopportunities,andacommonlysharedcultureandindustrialatmosphereareexamplesofvocationaladvantages.Bynetworkingacrosscultures,firmsmaybeabletoleverageresourcesandcapabilitiesthatmightnototherwisebeavailable,andstimulatecontinuedroundsofinnovation.Althoughconceptualpiecesandcasestudiesarerichinindustrialclusterresearch,statisticalandmethodologicalstudieshavenotyetbeendevelopedenoughtoalevelthatissufficienttoconcludethegeneralizability.Duetothisreason,thisstudyaimsatincorporatingseveralindustrialrelatedtheoreticalfoundationstogeneratemeasurableconstructs/variablesofafirm’sindustrialclusterinvolvementinhopeofadvancingindustrialclusterresearchtothenextlevel.Thisstudybeginswithliteraturereviewofindustrialclusterresearch;followbythecategorizationofthecharacteristicsofafirm’sindustrialclusterinvolvement.Intheend,discussion,futureresearch,andconclusionarepresented.2TheoreticalFoundations2.1Porter’sDiamondModelAcluster,sometimestermedanindustrialdistrict,canbedefinedasageographical,shared-focus,andpectoralconcentrationandcombinationoffirms.Aclusteroffirmsislikelytofacilitateefficientandeffectivecollaborationandtheleveragingofdifferentresourcesandcompetenciespossessedbyeachfirm(Lawson,1999).Porter(1998)viewsclustersastheresultofanimprovementinabusinessenvironment.Hefurtherexplainsthatanindustrialclusterisasociallyandgeographicallyproximategroupofinterconnectedcompaniesandassociatedinstitutionsinaparticularfield,linkedbycommonalitiesandcomplementarities(Porter,1998).Asthesumofthecomponentsisofgreatervaluethaneachindividualinstitution,clusterscreatesynergies.Porter’s(1990)studiesinindustrialclustershavefocusedonspecificindustriestocreateabettertheoreticalframework.Whilestudyingindustrialdevelopmentandinternationalcompetitivenessinanumberofdifferentcountries,Porter(1998)arguedthattherearefourbroadattributesthatconstitutethediamondofcompetitiveadvantage.Theseincludefactorconditions,demandconditions,relatedandsupportingindustries,andfirmstrategy,structureandrivalry.Factorconditionsaretheinputsnecessaryforanindustry,includinghighqualityhumanresources,advancedtechnology,andnaturalresources.Demandconditionsarethenatureofthemarketandwhetheritstimulatesfirmstosearchfornewsourcesofvaluethroughdifferentiationandspecialization.Thecategoryofsupportingindustriesreferstotheavailabilityandcapabilityoflocalsuppliersthatprovidefirmswiththematerialsnecessarytocompeteinthemarket.Finally,firmstrategy,structureandrivalryemphasizethepromotionoflocalrivalrythatdrivesfirmstodifferentiation,investmentandinnovation.Thefourpointsofthediamondrepresentthefourbasicattributesthataffectregionalcompetitivenessandinnovation.Eachofthefourattributesisselfreinforcing,hasauniqueandimportantroletoplayinaregionalcluster,andtheyalloperatetogetherasasystem.Moreover,thissystemdiffersfromlocationtolocation,andthus,itexplainswhysomefirmsorindustriessucceedinaparticularlocation.Figure1illustratesPorter’sdiamondmodel.2.2CollectiveEfficiencyAnothermajorapproachinstudyingindustrialclustersissummarizedinSchmitz’s(1995,1997)conceptof“collectiveefficiency”.Theterm“collectiveefficiency”hasbeenusedtodescribethecombinedbenefitsthatfirmsexperienceasaresultofexternaleconomicgainsfromjointaction(Schmitz,1995,1997).Externaleconomicactivitiestakeplacewheremarket-pricedtransactionscannotcompletelyintegratetheadvantagesorexpensesthatareassociatedwithtransactionalactivities.Thenotableexamplesarebenefitsthatmaytakeplacefromrelativelyeasieraccesstotheembeddedbenefitsthatanindustrialclustermayoffertothememberfirms.Overall,firmsinanindustrialclustermayenjoy:（1）Specializedlocalsuppliersofneededrawmaterialandnecessaryservices.（2）Alocalhigh-qualitypooloflaborwithneededandimportantskillsandknowledge.（3）Anatmospherewithinanindustrialclusterinwhichrelatedtechnologicalknow-how.andthoughtsare“contagiouslyfloatingintheair,”andeventuallymayaffectalltheparticipatingfirmsintheparticularindustrialcluster(Marshall,1919).Traditionally,externalmarket-pricedeconomicactivitiesareviewedasastartingplacerepresentingthemarket“inefficiency”ratherthanadvantage.Forinstance,thespeedydisseminationofspecializedskillsandknowledgethatissupposedtobeasignificantcharacteristicofmanyindustrialclusterscouldbeexpectedtocauseanunder-investmentindevelopmentofnewtechnologicalbreakthroughs(Brusco,1990;Ghani,1991).Althoughsomeindustrialclustersdoseemtobeweakatradicalinnovation,persistentincrementaltechnologicalandorganizationalchangesaredeemedtobethenotablestrengthofindustrialclusters.Evenwell-knowncompaniesandinnovativeorganizationsappeartobenefitmorefrombeingstationedinaclusterthanremainingisolatedbecauseoftheirintensivelyguardedtechnologicalboundaries(Stewart&Ghani,1991;Schmitz,1997).Externaleconomiesareimportantinexplainingthegrowthofcontemporaryindustrialclusters,butthereisalsoadeliberateforceatwork,namelyconsciouslypursuedjointaction(Brusco,1990;Pedersenetal,1994;Schmitz,1995,1997).Suchjointactioncanbeoftwotypes:individualenterprisesjoiningforcesinbusinessassociationsandproducerconsortia.Cuttingacrossthisdistinction,onecandistinguishbetweenhorizontalcooperation(betweencompetitors),andverticalcooperation(supplychainrelationships).Thesegainsofjointactionaregeneratedthroughcooperativeandcollaborativerelationsamongfirmsinawidevarietyofdifferentinstitutionalforms(McCormick,1999).Themostnotableformofcooperativerelationshipsoccurinabilateralwaybetweenindividualfirms,forinstance,thehorizontalrelationshipsestablishedtosharethespecializedcapitalequipmentbyoriginallycompetingfirms,orverticalcollaborationonthenextroundinnovationornewproductdevelopmentbetweenbuyersandsuppliers(Humphrey&Schmitz,1996;Nadvi,1996).Moreover,inwellstructuredandhighlydevelopedindustrialclusters,thetypeofmultilateralrelationshipsamongclusteringfirms,rangingfromtransactionalassociationsandmarket/organizationalconsortiatopoliticallobbies,mightexist(Nadvi,1996).Forexample,themultilateralrelationalactivitiesmightinclude:penetratingandexploringnewmarketopportunitiesthroughtradeshowsandexhibitions,upgradingindustrialinfrastructure,andorganizingcollectivetrainingopportunities.Evenifmanyfirms,particularlythesmallerones,areunabletoactivelyparticipateinthesetypesofcollaborativerelationalactivities,thefactthatthereareothersamongthemwholeadinpushingforwardthecluster’stechnologicalormarketingfrontierscanbeverysignificant(Nadvi,1996).Insum,theconceptofcollectiveefficiencyisthat(a)theeconomicviabilitycannotbeunderstoodbyfocusingonanindividual,and(b)theexternaleconomiesarenotasufficientexplanationastheeffectsofpurposefuljointactionareanessentialcomponent.Thatis,collectiveefficiencyisthecompetitiveadvantagederivedfromlocalexternaleconomiesandjointaction.2.3FlexibleSpecializationFrameworkIntoday’sbusinessenvironment,newformsoforganizationalprocesseshaveemergedtoassistfirmstobettercopewithincreasinglydemandingenvironmentalrequirements.Oneoftheemergingnewformsisthenetworkstructure,whichlinksfirmstogetherbytransactionsorexchangesofbothvisibleandinvisibleresources.Theseverticallydisaggregatedfirmsareconsideredflexiblyspecializedinsomeoftheirsupplychainfunctionsduetotheconstantandpersistentcompetenceenhancementovertime.Whenallthespecializedfirmsareregardedasanetworkedwhole,thisparticularnetworkisflexible(Piore&Sabel,1984).Theflexibilityherereferstotheoverallcapabilityinadaptingtoafast-changingenvironmentbecauseeachoftheparticipatingfirmscanproduceuniqueoutputsthatmaysatisfytheenvironmentaldemand(Storper&Christopherson,1987).Asanenvironmentchangesovertime,traditionalmassproductionrevealsacriticalproblemthatisoverlydependentonstabilizingandextendingthemarketwithhomogeneousgoods.Themoreproduct-specificthemachinery,thelessvariabletheproductthatcansatisfytoday’schangingcustomerdemand.Onceafirmhasinvestedheavilyinproductspecifictechnology,eachchangeintheproductionprocessrequireshighretoolingcosts.Thus,thislogiconlyappliestomassproductionandstablemarkets.Increasingly,thewaytoobtainhighvolumesalesistoavoidmassproductionanddevelopamoreflexiblestrategytoreduceproductioncostswhilemaintainingtheorganizationalflexibilitynecessarytoadapttoexternaluncertainty.Companieshavetoorganizesothatorganizationalcompetencyandcompetitivenesscanbeconstantlyrealignedtoproduce.PioreandSabel(1984)describetheshiftinthinkingaboutstrategy,organization,andtechnologythattheyseeasanecessaryresponsetonewconditionsofcompetition,referringtoaconversionfrominflexiblemassproductiontoflexiblespecialization.Theysuggestthatfirmsneedtodeveloptheircorecompetencetoensuretheirperformanceandsustaincompetitiveadvantageinatimelymanner.Anindustrialclustercanbeconsideredacollectionofmany“focusedfactories”(Skinner,1974)withstrongsocial,geographical,andeconomicaltiesthatcanfurtherinducesynergiesaswellascollectiveeconomicgains. Amongthecharacteristicsofflexiblyspecializedindustriesaretheproductionofawiderangeofproductsforhighlydifferentiatedmarketsandtheconstantadaptationofendproductsandservicesforchangingenvironmentalconditionsandexpandingmarkets.Thiscanbemanagedbydevelopingflexibleandwidelyapplicabletechnologiessothatinnovationisnotheldbackbymassivecapitalinvestmentinrigidtechnologies,andworkerspossesstheskillstoproduceanddevelopawiderangeofproductsand/orservices(Piore&Sabel,1984;Starkey&Barnatt,1997).Thestrategicimperativeisastrategythatcombinesbothdifferentiationandefficiency.Industrialclustersconsistofseveralverticallydisaggregatedfirmsthatareabletogenerateflexiblespecialization.Theproductionofmanyspecializedfirmsinregionalnetworkscanadaptmorequicklytochangingmarketdemandsthansinglefirms,asisthecaseinthetraditionalmassproductionmode.Verticaldisaggregationservesasbothameanstoreducefixedcostsandawayofincreasingproductvarietyrelativetothecompetition(Storper,1993).Theoutcomeisaflexiblenetworkofsmall,independent,andserviceorientedcompaniesspecializedtoproduceadifferentiatedrangeofoutput;thisisalsoknownasa“transaction-richnetworksystem”withinacluster(Starkey&Barnatt,1997).Throughitsintegrationofmultipleflexiblespecializedfirms(Miles&Snow,1986),thisclusternetworkservesasanalternativetoWilliamson’shierarchy(1975).Crucially,theclusternetworkcancounterthediseconomiesofscale,theinflexibilityofhierarchies,andlargeandinflexiblecommitmentstohighlyspecializedcapitalintensiveactivities(Barnatt&Starkey,1994;Harrigan,1985;Thorelli,1986).Table1summarizestheindustrialrelatedresearch.3MeasurableConstructsofaFirm’sIndustrialClusterInvolvementThetermindustrialclusteriswidelyusedbybothpractitionersandacademics.Thishasanunwelcomeeffectofmakingitsdefinitionflexible.Assuch,itisimportanttoidentifyclearlythevaluejudgmentassociatedwithdefiningacluster.Frommuchclusterrelatedresearch,AlfredMarshallisconsideredoneofthepioneersofindustrialclusterrelatedtheorywhofirstcoinedtheterm“industrialdistrict.”Hepublishedtwoinfluentialarticles,PrinciplesofEconomics(1890),andIndustryandTrade(1919),whicharebelievedtohavehadadeepimpactontheadvancementofindustrialclusterrelatedresearch.Heviewsindustrialclusteras“Themanyinone,andtheoneinmany”(Marshall,1919),whichreferstothesituationthatcompaniesaresituatedinanindustrialcluster.Oneofthemisspecializedinauniqueeconomicactivity,whichleadstothecreationofaseriesofinter-connectedeconomicoperationsandsocialdependencesbetweenthisparticularfirmandotherstoestablishanetworksupplychaininareducedgeographicproximity.ThecollectivityofspecializedfirmsandthesocialinterdependencesrepresentthegeneralconceptofindustrialclustersinMarshall’sresearch(1890).Hecontendsthatthedeterminantsofeconomicprogressionofaregiondependsoncrossborderinternationaltrade,whichadvancestheresearchofthelocalizedindustry,andattractsapoolofskilledworkerswhogatherwithinthereducedgeographicalboundariesofacollectivityofmanufacturersora“thicklypeopledindustrialdistrict”(Marshall,1890,1919).Thereisafundamentaldifferenceintheunitofanalysisbetween“industrialcluster”andafirm’stable1“industrialclusterinvolvement”.Toevaluateafirm’sperformanceoutcome,thetermDiamondModelCollectiveEfficiencyFlexibleSpecializationClusterDefinitionAgroupofinterconnectedfirmsandinstitutionsinaparticularfieldpresentinaparticularlocationAgroupofproducersmakingsimilarproductsand/orservicesbycomplementingeachotherClusterisanindustrialdistrictwhichcontainsmanyfirmsboundinacomplexwebofcompetitionandcooperationKeyComponentsFirmstrategy,structureandrivalry;factorconditions;demandconditions;supportingindustriesSynergy;Jointaction;ComplementarilyFlexibility;Economiesofscope;Innovation;Learning;ProductdifferentiationGoal/FocusValuecreationHolisticDynamicCostefficiencyNarrowStaticValuecreationNarrowDynamicRelatedStudiesPorter(1990,1998);Bresnahan,GambardellaBrusco(1990);Pedersenetal.(1994);Schmitz(1995,1997)Piroe&Sabel(1984);Starkey&Barnatt(1997)Bettersuited.Tallmanetal.(2004)distinguishesbetweentwotypesofcompetitivecharacteristicsthatcanbefurtherdevelopedintocompetitiveadvantageforafirm’sindustrialclusterinvolvement:(a)thosebasedontradedinterdependences,and(b)thosebasedonnon-tradedinterdependences.Afirm’stradedinterdependencesexistintheeconomicsphereandinvolveformalexchangesofvalueforvalue.Theyincludelicensing,alliances,acquisitions,ortechnologicalknowhowinwhichformalexchangestakeplace(Tallmanetal,2004).Existencewithintheeconomicsphereinfersthattradedinterdependencesreflecttherationalactorprincipleatworkregardingeffortstomaximizetheefficientallocationandeffectiveutilizationofresources.Storper(1995,1997)observedthattradedinterdependencesarereadilydispersedasindustriesmature.Thiscanbeattributedtoagreaterunderstandingoftheprocessessurroundingeconomictransactionsinanindustrialcluster.Theimportanceofafirm’stradedandnon-tradedinterdependencesinanindustrialclusterhaschangedovertime.Originally,theadvantagesassociatedwiththeeconomicspherereceivedthegreat