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EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)ProfessionalEnglishforEnvironmentalEngineering

EIAisintendedtoidentifytheimpacts(bothbeneficialandadverse)ofaproposedpublicorprivatedevelopmentactivity.Often,thefocusisdominantlyenvironmental(biophysical);butpracticealsoaddressessocialandeconomicaspects.EIAismainlyusedatthelevelofspecificdevelopmentsandprojectssuchasdams,industrialplants,transportinfrastructure(e.g.airportrunwaysandroads),farmenterprises,andnaturalresourceexploitation(e.g.sandextraction).EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Purpose

Strategicenvironmentalassessment(SEA)isasistertoolappliedupstreamatthelevelofpolicies,plansandprogrammes.LikeSEA,EIAismostvaluablewhenappliedearlyintheplanningprocessforaprojectasasupporttodecision-making.Itprovidesameanstoidentifythemostenvironmentallysuitableoptionatanearlystage,thebestpracticableenvironmentaloptionandalternativestotheproposedinitiative;andthusavoidorminimizepotentiallydamagingandcostlynegativeimpacts,andmaximizepositiveimpacts.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

Purpose

EIAwasfirstintroducedintheUSAundertheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(1969).Sincethenithasevolvedandavarietyofoffshootassessmenttechniqueshaveemerged(focusing,forexampleonsocial,biodiversity,environmentalhealthandcumulativeeffectsandrisk)actingasabroaderimpactassessmenttoolkit.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

BackgroundFacts

MostcountrieshavenowintroducedformalEIAsystems,usuallyunderdedicatedenvironmentallegislation,andhaveintroducedEIAregulations(andoftenregulatorybodies)specifyingwhenandforwhichdevelopmentsanEIAisrequired,institutionalresponsibilitiesandprocedures,andspecificstepsandprocessestobefollowed.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

BackgroundFacts

KeystagesintheEnvironmentalAssessmentprocessinclude:screening,alternatives,preliminaryassessment,scoping,mitigation,mainEIAstudyandenvironmentalimpactstatement,reviewandmonitoring.Theseneedtobemanagedsothattheyprovideinformationtodecision-makersateverystageoftheprojectplanningcycle.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

BriefDescriptionoftheMainStepsInvolvedinApplicationoftheTool

1Screening(usuallybyanEIAAuthority,orusingpublishedchecklists)—todecidewhetheranEIAisrequiredandfocusresourcesonprojectsmostlikelytohavesignificantimpact,thosewhereimpactsareuncertainandthosewhereenvironmentalmanagementinputislikelytoberequired.OfficialEIAguidelinesusuallycontainlistsorschedulesspecifyingwhichdevelopmentsrequireanEIA(e.g.always,orinparticularcircumstance).EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

StepsinEIA

2Considerationofpossiblealternatives(demand,activity,location,process&design,scheduling,inputs,‘noproject’)shouldbeundertakenbeforeachoiceismade.Someprojectsbesitespecific(e.g.inmining,extractioncanonlyoccurwereamineralissited).InsuchcasestheEIAmightfocusmoreonmeasuressuchasscale,mitigatingmeasuresandtrafficmanagement.Projectspromotedbypublicsectoragenciesaremorelikelytoconsideralternativesitesorroutesfordevelopmentthanprivatesectorinitiativeswheretheearlyneedtoacquireoptionsorpurchaselandstronglyinfluencesdevelopmentlocation.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

StepsinEIA

3Preliminaryassessment—wherescreeningsuggestsfurtherassessmentisneededorifthereisuncertaintyaboutthenatureofpotentialimpacts.Usesrapidassessmenttechniques,butprovidessufficientdetailtoidentifykeyimpacts,theirmagnitudeandsignificance,andevaluatetheirimportancefordecision-making.IndicatesifafullEIAisneeded--involvingthefollowingsteps.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

StepsinEIA

4Scoping—a‘narrowing’processusuallyundertakenbyanassessmentteamtoidentifykeyissuesofconcernatanearlystageintheplanningprocessandguidethedevelopmentoftermsofreferencefortheEIA.Itaidssiteselection,identifiespossiblealternatives,andavoidsdelaysduetohavingtoassesspreviouslyunidentifiedpossibleimpacts.Scopingshouldinvolveallinterestedpartiessuchastheproponentandplanningorenvironmentalagenciesandmembersofthepublic.Theresultsdeterminethescope,depthandtermsofreferencetobedressedwithinanEnvironmentalImpactStatement(seebelow).Oncethesitefordevelopmenthasbeenselected,thenumberofissuesusuallydecreasesandattentiontodetailincreases.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)5MainEIAstudy—buildingonanddeepeningtheprecedingstepstopredicttheextentanmagnitudeofimpactsanddeterminetheirsignificance.Avarietyofmethodscanbeusedincluding:checklists,questionnaires,matrices,overlays,networks,modelsandsimulations.Thestudyshouldincorporateconsiderationofmitigatingmeasures—reviewingtheactionproposed/takentoprevent,avoidorminimizeactualorpotentialsignificantadverseeffectsofaproject,e.g.abandoningormodifyingaproposal,orsubstitutingtechniquesusingBATNEEC(BestAvailableTechnologyNotEntailingExcessiveCosts)suchaspollutionabatementtechniquestoreduceemissionstolegallimits.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)5MainEIAstudy—Iftheuncertaintiesaregreat,withthepossibilityofgraveconsequencesandnomitigatingmeasuresthentheproposeddevelopmentshouldberejected.Ifthereareuncertaintiesthatmightbereducedbyfurtherstudies,thenanapplicationcanbedeferredpendinguntilfurtherstudies.Wheremitigationisinappropriate,compensationmaybeanoption.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)5MainEIAstudy—AnEnvironmentalImpactStatement(EIS)isacomprehensivedocumentthatreportsthefindingsoftheEIAandnowoftenrequiredbylawbeforeanewprojectcanproceed.AtypicalEIS,usuallypreparedbytheprojectonbehalfoftheproponent(usuallybyconsultants),focusesontheissuesmostrelevanttodecision-making.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Itcanbebrokendownintothreepartswithdifferentlevelsofdetail:Volume1—acomprehensiveandconcisedocumentdrawingtogetherallrelevantinformationregardingthedevelopmentproject.Non-TechnicalSummary(NTS)—abriefreportofvolume1innon-technicallanguagethatcaneasilybeunderstoodbythepublic.Volume2—avolumethatcontainsadetailedassessmentofthesignificantenvironmentaleffects(Notnecessarywhentherearenosignificanteffectseitherbeforeoraftermitigation).StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Alternativecommunicationapproachesbyalsobeappropriatewhereliteracyorsocial/culturalbarrierspreventlocalpeopleaccessingtheEIS.(e.g.locallanguagevideos,presentations,radioprogrammes,meetingsandworkshops)StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)6Review—toassesstheadequacyoftheEIAtodecision-makingandconsideritsimplicationsforprojectimplementation(insomecountries,suchreviewisaformalandindependentprocess)7Monitoringofprojectimplementationandoperation(includingdecommissioning),andeventuallyanauditoftheprojectafteritscompletionStepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)AnEnvironmentalImpactStatementthatprovidesclear,understandable,relevantinformationtoinfluencethefinaldecisiononthedevelopmentproject.Abetterdevelopmentproject(minimizednegativeimpacts,maximizedpositiveimpacts,optimallocation,bestalternativeselected,etc.)ExpectedOutputs

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Foramajorproject,anEIAmaytakeconsiderabletime,manpowerandresources.ThefirstfourstagesareveryimportanttodeterminetherequiredextentandfocusoftheEIA.BasicRequirements

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Predictionofimpactsreliesondatafromavarietyofsources:physical,biologicalandsociological.Itsqualitywilloftenimposeconstraintsonaccuracyandreliabilityofpredictions.Wheredataislimited,qualitativetechniqueswillneedtobeused.SkillsandCapacity—oftenamultidisciplinaryteamisrequired-particularlywherescopingindicatestheexistenceofmultipleorcomplexissues.Data

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Pros(mainadvantages)andCons(mainconstraintsinuseandresults)EIAoftenfocusesonbiophysicalissues(oftenafaultofpoortermsofreference).Whereenvironment,socialandeconomicaspectsareaddressed,theyarenotalwaysaddressedinanintegratedway.EIAprovidesanopportunitytolearnfromexperienceofsimilarprojectsandavoidsthe(oftenhigh)costofsubsequentlymitigatingunforeseennegativeanddamagingimpacts.EIAimproveslong-termviabilityofmanyprojects.Data

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)ArelativelysmallEIAofaproposedroaddevelopmentinMaputaland,SouthAfricawasconductedin1999fortheSouthAfricanRoadsAgency,DepartmentofTransport.TheroadformedakeyinfrastructuralcomponentofaSpatialDevelopmentInitiativeaimingtoprovideadirectlinkbetweennorthernKwaZulu-NatalandMozambiquetoencouragerapidinvestmentandconverttheareaintoaninternationallycompetitivezoneofeconomicactivityandgrowth.Theprojectaimedtotartheroad,upgraderivercrossingsandconstructanewcrossingoveraswamp.Theundevelopedareadominatedbysubsistenceagriculturehadhighlevelsofpovertyandunemploymentbuthighbiodiversityvalueandhigheco-tourismpotential.CaseStudy:EIAMkuzeRiverCrossingtoPhelendaba,SouthAfrica

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)MkuzeGameReserveTheMkhuzeRiverrunsalongthenorthernandeasternborderswithfigforestsalongitsbanks.VariousanimalspeciesthatmaybefoundintheMkuzeReserveincludeWhiteandBlackRhino,Lion,Leopard,Elephant,Giraffe,Nyala,Wildebeest,andmuchmore.RarespeciesincludeCheetah,WildDog,Hyenas,andSuni.Anextendedscopingstudyprovedadequatefordecision-making,despitethecomplexityofissues.Itprovedunnecessarytoundertakeanintensive,detailedEIAthatwouldhavehadsignificanttimeandresourceimplications.Thestudyinvolvedextensivestakeholderparticipation.Becauseoftheeco-tourismpotentialofpansinthearea,theKwaZulu-NatalNatureConservationService(KZNNCS)proposedanalternativeroutingfortheroadway(thewesternalignment),arguingthatthiswouldprovidegreateraccesstotheKwa-JobeTribalAuthority-anextremelypoorcommunity.CaseStudy:EIAMkuzeRiverCrossingtoPhelendaba,SouthAfrica

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Theexistingroutewasshorterandthereforecheaper,andmostofitsalignmentwasalreadycleared-solineardevelopmentsandotherdisturbancesalreadyexisted.Butitpassedthroughastateforestwithhazardstogameandgamehazardstotraffic,opportunisticpoachingandnoisefromtheroad.Thealternativewesternalignmentrequiredclearing140haofmatureSandForestandcouldopenaccesstouncontrolledwoodcutting.ButbenefitsincludedexpandingthewidthofamigrationcorridorbetweentheMkuzeGameReserveandtheSodwana.CaseStudy:EIAMkuzeRiverCrossingtoPhelendaba,SouthAfrica

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)狀語從句

狀語從句在整個句子中用來修飾主句中的動詞、形容詞或副詞。英語中的狀語從句形式多樣、變化繁多，是一個比較復雜的語言現(xiàn)象。從類別上來說，英漢狀語從句都可以分為九大類，即時間狀語從句、地點狀語從句、原因狀語從句、結果狀語從句、條件狀語從句、方式狀語從句、目的狀語從句、讓步狀語從句、比較狀語從句等。從語序上來說，英語中狀語從句的位置比較靈活，可放在主句的前面、中間或后面；而漢語中狀語成分的位置較為固定，一般放在主句的前面。英語和漢語分別隸屬不同語系，前者屬于印歐語系，具有形合式的特點，而后者則屬于漢藏語系，具有意合式的特點。換言之，漢語語句在表達上主要靠詞序或語序，少用連詞，而英語則不同，它必須要有相應的連詞加以連接，但在翻譯的過程中，往往不必譯出連詞。Translation

狀語從句一、時間狀語從句

英語中的時間狀語從句，一般置于主句之前或之后，而在漢語中，通常置于主句之前。翻譯時，往往采用以下幾種處理方法，即順序譯法、逆序譯法、分譯譯法、轉換譯法。(1)Wheneverwethinkhard,ourbrainproducesspecialtransportchemicals.譯文：當我們思考時，我們的大腦產生特殊的傳輸化學物質。（順序譯法）(2)Hardlyhadtheoperatorpressedthebuttonwhenalltheelectricmachinesbegantowork.譯文：操作人員一按電鈕，所有電機都開始運作。（逆序譯法）(3)Theearthturnsrounditsaxisasittravelsaboutthesun.譯文：地球一面繞太陽轉，一面繞地軸自轉。（分譯譯法）Translation

狀語從句二、地點狀語從句

地點狀語從句一般是由“where”，“wherever”等連詞引導，位置相對比較靈活，可放在主句之前也可放在主句之后，有時，地點狀語從句表達的意思卻是條件句或結果狀語從句的意思。翻譯時，也可靈話處理，一般可采用順序譯法，逆序譯法和轉換譯法種翻譯方法：(1)Weuseinsulatorstopreventelectricalchargesfromgoingwheretheyarenotwanted.譯文：我們使用絕球體是為了防止電荷跑到不需要的地方去，（順序譯法）(2)Asignalwillbeshownwhereveranythingwrongoccursinthecontrolsystem.譯文；無論控制系統(tǒng)什么部位出故障，都會給出信號。（逆序譯法）(3)Variationsandpermutationsoftheseproceduresareemployed,particularlywhereequipmentonhandhasbeenmodifiedformaskmanufacture.譯文：這些程序可加以改變或重新排列，特別是現(xiàn)有的設備為制造掩膜而已經被修改了。（地點狀語從句轉譯為目的狀語從句）Translation

狀語從句三、原因狀語從句

英語中原因狀語從句常常是由“because”，“since”,“for”和“as”等連詞引導，往往位于主句之后，有時也位于主句之前。在漢語表達習慣中，一般先說明原因，再說結果，這樣才符合邏輯。所以，在翻譯時，往往被譯成“由于……”、“因為……”等句式。在有些情況下，受到西方語言的影響，某些原因狀語從句放在后面，只是起到補充說明作用。以下來具體分析幾種翻譯方法：(1)Thematerialfirstusedwascopperforthereasonthatitiseasilyobtainedinitspurestate.譯文：最先使用的材料是銅，因為易于制取純銅。（順序譯法）(2)Somesulphurdioxideisliberatedwhencoal,heavyoilandgasburn,becausetheyallcontainsulphurcompounds.譯文：因為煤、重油和煤氣的燃燒都含有硫化物，所以它們燃燒時會釋放由一些二氧化硫。（逆序譯法）(3)Becausehewasconvincedoftheaccuracyofthisfact,hestucktohisopinion.譯文：他深信這一事實正確可靠，故而堅持己見。（轉換譯法）Translation

狀語從句四、結果狀語從句

英漢兩種語言中結果狀語從句都放在主句之后，由連詞that或so…that，such…that等結構引導。多數(shù)情況下，采取順序譯法處理就可以了，但也不要過于拘泥，通通將其譯為“因而”、“因此”、“如此……以致”、“致使……”等句式。一句話，欲得佳譯，還需譯者靈活處理。例如：

(1)Thesunissomuchbiggerthantheearththatitwouldtakeoveramillionearthstofillaballasbigasthesun.譯文：太陽比地球大多了，所以得有一百多萬個地球才能填滿像太陽那么大的球體。(順序譯法)(3)Somestarsaresofarawaythattheirlightraysmusttravelforthousandsofyearstoreachus.譯文：有些恒星十分遙遠，它們的光線要經過幾千年才能到達地球。（轉換譯法）Translation

狀語從句五、條件狀語從句

英語中的條件狀語從句主要由“if”,“unless”,“as/solongas”,“onconditionthat”等連接詞引導，其在邏輯關系上與漢語的假設復句或條件復句大體一致。一般而言，英語中的條件狀語從句位于主句之前或之后，但絕大多數(shù)是位于主句之前，而在漢語中，它往往位于復句的前部。在某些情況下，為了強調說明或附加補充，也可以將其置于主句之后，翻譯時，也可依此譯出。(1)Ifsomethinghastheabilitytoadjustitselftotheenvironment,wesayithasintelligence.譯文：如果某物具有適應環(huán)境的能力，我們就說它具有智慧。（順序譯法）(3)Electricitywouldbeofverylittleserviceifwewereobligedtodependonthemomentaryflow.譯文：在我們需要依靠瞬時電流時，電力就沒有多大用處。(條件狀語從句轉譯為時間狀語從句)Translation

狀語從句五、條件狀語從句

此外，還有一種特殊的條件句，就是英語中的非真實條件句，也稱作虛擬語氣。這類句子位于句首，省略“if”引導詞，卻把“were”,“had”,“should”和“could”等詞提到句首主語之前，形成一種倒裝語序。對于這類句子，在翻譯時，也可參照由連詞“if”引導的條件句的處理方法，常常采用順序譯法。例如：(4)Weretherenoelectricpressureinasemiconductortheelectronflowwouldnottakeplaceinit.譯文：如果半導體中沒有電壓，其內部就不會產生電流。Translation

狀語從句六、方式狀語從句

方式狀語從句是英語中較為特別的一種狀語從句，它可以位于主句之前，也可以位于主句之后，一般由“as”,“(just)as…so…”,“asif”,“asthough”等引導?！癮s”,“(just)as…”，“so…”等引導詞引導的方式狀語從句通常位于主句后，但在“(just)as…so…”結構中會位于句首，這時“as”從句帶有比喻的含義，意思為“正如……”、“就像”，多用于較為正式的文體當中。“asif”、“asthough”兩者的意義和用法相同，引出的狀語從句謂語多用虛擬語氣，表示與事實相反，有時也用陳述語氣，表示所說情況是事實或實現(xiàn)的可能性較大，常常譯為“仿佛…似的”、“好像……似的”。翻譯時，需要對這些引導詞加以區(qū)分，正確譯出其意義。(1)Eachoftwowirescarryingcurrentshasamagneticfield,asifitwereamagnet.譯文：通電的兩根導線每根都有一個磁場，就好像是一塊磁鐵一樣。（順序譯法）(2)Justasalllivingthingsneedair,waterandsunlight,soplantsneedthem.譯文：植物像所有生物一樣也需要空氣、水和陽光。（逆序譯法）靠瞬時電流時，電力就沒有多大用處。(條件狀語從句轉譯為時間狀語從句)Translation

狀語從句七、目的狀語從句

英語中的目的狀語從句與漢語中的表達習慣基本相同，一般來說它位于主句的后面，常常由“inorderthat”、“sothat”等結構引導，翻譯時，往往處理為“以便……”、“以免……”、“為的是……”、“為了要……”等句式。此外，在由“sothat”引導的表示要達到某種目的的一種愿望的從句中，其謂語里往往含有諸如“may”，“might”、“can/could/should”等的情態(tài)動詞，否則就屬于表示一種結果的結果狀語從句，試比較以下幾個例句。(2)Thenegativeworkshouldbemaintainedataslowavalueaspossibleforagivenpressureratio,sothatamaximumamountofusefulworkmaybeobtained.譯文：在給定的壓力比下，負功應當保持在盡可能低的值，以便可以獲得最大的有用功。（目的狀語從句）(3)Reflectorsarelocatedsocloselytoeachotherthatechoesoverlap,resultinginthesinglecontinuousechosignaltrain.譯文：發(fā)射器彼此密切相連，因此反射波重疊，形成單一連續(xù)的反射信號串。（結果狀語從句）Translation

狀語從句八、讓步狀語從句

英語中的讓步狀語從句往往由“while”，“although”，“though”，“eventhough”等連詞引導，也可以由“nomatter+疑問詞”或“疑問詞+后綴ever”或“形容詞+as+倒裝句子”構成。一般情況下，由“though”和“although”引導的讓步狀語從句，后面的從句中不能出現(xiàn)“but”一詞，但是“though”和“yet”可連用；由“as”和“though”引導的讓步從句必須將表語或狀語提前（如形容詞、副詞、分詞等提前）。翻譯時，常常譯為“雖然/盡管/即使……但……”、“不管/無論……”等意義的句式，常采用順序譯法、逆序譯法和變序譯法。(1)Althoughheseemsheartyandoutgoinginpublic,Mr.Cooksisawithdrawn,introvertedman.譯文：雖然庫克斯先生在公共場合熱情而開朗，但他卻是一個孤僻的、性格內向的人。（順序譯法）(2)Allelectroniccomputersconsistoffiveunitsalthoughtheyareofdifferentkinds.譯文：盡管種類各異，但所有電子計算機都由五大部分組成。（逆序譯法）Translation

狀語從句九、比較狀語從句

英語中的比較狀語從句通常是由“as…as…”，“…than”，“themore…themore…”，“notso…as…”引導，有些句子成分通?？墒÷浴＿@類從句和大多數(shù)狀語從句不同，它們不修飾動詞，而是修飾“as/so/less/more”等副詞，或其他比較級的詞，如“taller”，“harder”等。這里討論的是它們作為狀語從句的情況。一般而言，英漢語中的比較狀語從句位于主句之后，往往譯為“比……”，“和……一樣”，可采用順序譯法和變序譯法。(2)Thebetterconductorasubstanceis,thelessisitsresistance.譯文：物質的導電性能越好，其電阻越小。（順序譯法）(3)TheUKwillhavemoreflexibilitythanbeforeovertrading-offtime,whole-lifecostandperformance.譯文：英國在交易時間、全壽命費用和性能等方面將具有前所未有的靈活性。（變序譯法）Translation

Exercise

1.Projectspromotedbypublicsectoragenciesaremorelikelytoconsideralternativesitesorroutesfordevelopmentthanprivatesectorinitiativeswheretheearlyneedtoacquireoptionsorpurchaselandstronglyinfluencesdevelopmentlocation.2.InsuchcasestheEIAmightfocusmoreonmeasuressuchasscale,mitigatingmeasuresandtrafficmanagement.Projectspromotedbypublicsectoragenciesaremorelikelytoconsideralternativesitesorroutesfordevelopmentthanprivatesectorinitiativeswheretheearlyneedtoacquireoptionsorpurchaselandstronglyinfluencesdevelopmentlocation.Translation

學術論文的撰寫（九）摘要和關鍵詞的寫作技巧一、摘要

摘要(abstract)也稱為內容提要，美國國家標準(ASNI)定義摘要是“一篇精確代表文獻內容的簡短文字”。摘要的英文術語原來有兩個詞匯，一個是“abstract”，一個是“summary”，現(xiàn)在越來越多的用法是“abstract”，尤其是放在索引資料中一律要用“abstract”這個術語?！皊ummary”現(xiàn)在更多的是用于對文章主要內容的陳述，放在文章的結尾。通常在科技論文中都必須附有摘要，其位置應放在論文的正文之前。1.摘要的功能與種類。摘要分為兩類，一類是說明性摘要(descriptiveabstract)，一類是資料性摘要informativeabstract)。如果沒有特殊要求，科研人員一般使用的是資料性摘要。現(xiàn)分別對兩種摘要進行敘述。Writing

學術論文的撰寫（九）摘要和關鍵詞的寫作技巧一、摘要

2.摘要的特點學術論文摘要的長短一般為正文字數(shù)的2~3%。國際標準化組織建議不少于250個詞，最多不超過500個詞。美國化學文獻、醫(yī)學文摘規(guī)定在200個詞以內。①要說明實驗或論證中新觀察到的事實、結論。若有可能，還要說明新的理論、處理方法及過程、儀器、技術等要點。②要說明新化合物的名稱、新數(shù)據(jù)，包括物理常數(shù)等。如不能對其說明，也要提到這些內容。提到新的項目和新的觀察是很重要的。③在說明實驗結果時，要說明所采用的方法，如果是新方法，還要簡述其基本原理、操作范圍和準確程度。Writing

學術論文的撰寫（九）摘要和關鍵詞的寫作技巧一、摘要

3.摘要的主要內容及文體要求(1)摘要的主要內容科技論文摘要的主要內容在上文中已經提及，資料性論文摘要應包括研究目的（對