1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上第一章 詞的概述      Chapter 1     .     All the words belong to the native stock.          1. from Danish     2. from French     3. from German 

2、0;   4. from Latin     5. from Italian     6. from Spanish     7. from Arabic     8. from Chinese     9. from Russian     10. from Greek     英語參考資料 &#

3、160;    Chapter 1     A General Survey of a Word     . Definition of a word     Aristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis hav

4、e discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme.     Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and b

5、ound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice

6、). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form.     Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that

7、 these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning. Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form (phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence.     . Sound

8、 and meaning     The Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Con

9、ventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese r&

10、#242;u. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite.     . Meaning and concept     Meaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a

11、concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does

12、not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows:     word - concept - referent     The formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.     A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.&#

13、160;    When someone says "chair" to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply because it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned

14、about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particular. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences:     .some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing. 

15、    The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm.     The word "automobile" in the first sentence refers to something in general whereas the word in the second sentence refers to a specific one.     There are two aspects to the meaning of

16、 a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called "denotation". For example, the denotation of "dog" is "canine quadruped". The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionary definition of a word. As oppos

17、ed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of "dog" might include "friend", "helper", "competition", etc.     . Lexical item and vocabulary     A unit of vocabula

18、ry is generally referred to as a lexical item. A complete inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that language's dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that "Lexical items are often referred to, loosely, as words."     Th

19、e term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former

20、 refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands.     The English vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English l

21、anguage. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the most indispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliar

22、y and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no small part in linguistic performance and communication.     Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or

23、dialect from another.     The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which t

24、he Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language.   

25、60; When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of t

26、he church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop, candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others.     To the Danes and Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, Engli

27、sh adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc.     The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the E

28、nglish vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon.), warfare (conquer, victory, archer.), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice.), architecture (castle, pillar, tower.), finance (pay, rent, ransom.), rank (baron, master, prince.), c

29、lothing (collar, mantle, vestment.), food (dinner, feast, sauce.) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting proper names, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 lines of the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 

30、    The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek through the medium of Latin and

31、a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -

32、meter, -gram and many others.     From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, soup.

33、The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sources o

34、f loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch).     At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth of international trade and the urge

35、 to colonize and dominate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebre

36、w); schmozze, schmaltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk, bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze, judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (

37、Russian).     Since the end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engagé (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); aut

38、ostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Arabic) and many others.     In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen,

39、antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, callipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology, dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope. Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms

40、 combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroove, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as

41、montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English period a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages.     第二章 詞的結(jié)構(gòu)和詞的構(gòu)成方式 練習(xí)答案    Chapter 2  &

42、#160; :     astir = in motion; in excited activity     awhir = whirring     anti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Market     anti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of

43、 the traditional features of the theatre     deplane = get out of an airplane after it lands     denationalize = deprive.of national rights or status     disambiguate = rid.of ambiguity     disadapt = make.unable to adap

44、t     ecocide = the destruction of the earth's ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutants     ecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutants     megajet = a jet airplane

45、 larger and faster than a jumbo jet (a jet airplane with a passenger capacity of about 500 people and a freight capacity of about 200 tons)     mini-budget = temporary budget     non-committed = not revealing one's position     nonnovel

46、 = lacking the usual characteristics of a conventional novel     outsmart = overcome by cunning or cleverness     outheadline = outshine.by making the headlines     supersecret = top-secret     supertax = an additional t

47、ax    .     cinerama = a form of cinema film projected on a wide-curved screen     circusama = a large-scale show of acrobats, trained animals, clowns     meritocrat = a member of a ruling class in society consisting of

48、those who are most talented or have the highest intellect     Eurocrat = a staff member of the administrative commission of the European Common Market     interviewee = a person who is interviewed     conferee = a person who participates in

49、 a conference     escapee = a person who has escaped     blackmailee = a person who is blackmailed     racketeer = a person who obtains money illegally     rocketeer = an expert in rocketry     second

50、-guesser = a person who uses hindsight in criticizing or advising someone     topsider = a top-ranking person     anchormanese = a style of language or diction used by an anchorman (a newscaster who coordinates the reports broadcast from various sources; a mod

51、erator of a discussion group as onradio or television)     engineerese = the sublanguage used by engineers and technicians     Johnsonese = a style of language used by Johnson     cablese = a style of language peculiar to a telegram &#

52、160;   smoketeria = a cigarette, cigar and pipe store     roadeteria = roadside restaurant     Chomskian = Chomsky's     Woolfian = a style of language used by Virginia Woolf     hawkish = warlike 

53、0;   narrowish = somewhat narrow     consumerism = an economic policy that emphasizes consumption, the theory or practice of protecting consumers' interests nuclearism = emphasis on nuclear weapons as a deterrent to war or as a means of attaining political and socia

54、l goals     golfitis = addiction to or preoccupation with golf     professoritis = obsession with the idea of becoming a professor beatnik = one of the Beat Generation (-nik meaning a person who does or is connected with something)     prot

55、estnik = a person who protests against conventions and traditional values     dopester = a person who analyses or predicts trends as in politics or sports     huckster = a person who is engaged in advertising, esp. for radio and television   

56、60; figurewise = in terms of figures     weatherwise = in terms of weather, skilled in predicting weather    .     soap suds = suds produced by soap     mosquito net = net used for protection against mosquitoes 

57、0;   fire squad = squad which prevents the spread of a fire     fertility site = site which induces fertility     influenza virus = virus which causes influenza     battle fatigue = fatigue caused by a battle   

58、0; brick mason = a person who lays brick or stone     guest conductor = corductor who appears or performs on a program by special invitation     interceptor plane = a fast-climbing military airplane used in fighting off attacks by enemy planes   

59、;  ejector seat = a seat designed to be ejected with its occupant from an airplane in an emergency, another expression for ejection seat     donor blood = donors' blood     voter enthusiasm = voters' enthusiasm     surface vess

60、el = vessel which moves on the surface     recovery helicopter = helicopter used for getting back (recovering) astronauts who have splashed down     investment money = money set apart for investment     rejection slip = a form or note from

61、a publisher, rejecting a work submitted for possible publication     export reject = something that has been rejected by export standards    .     1. relief organization = organization of relief work     2. feasibility s

62、tudy = a study to determine the feasibility of a project or program     3. gifts conspiracy = the act of working together secretly to use gifts as bribes     4. smut hounds = censors with eyes for porns    .     1. docto

63、red = applied medicine to     2. was telescoped = became shorter by crushing with one part sliding over another     3. mandate a solution = work out a solution by issuing an authoritative order     4. cataloguing = making a catalogue of; in

64、dexing = making an index of     5. a repeat = a rebroadcast     6. transplants = instances of transplanting     7. the quaint = something quaint; the picturesque = something picturesque     8. the condemned = the person

65、who has been convicted     9. moderns = modern painters     10. heavies = big shots     11. drearies = makes dreary (dull)     12. broad-brushing = describing in broad outline    .   &#

66、160; donate donation helicopt helicopter     automate automation spring-clean spring-cleaning     pettifog pettifogger sight-read sight-reading     enthuse enthusiasm chain-react chain reaction    .   

67、0; slurb: slum + suburb （城郊貧民區(qū)）     educrat: education + bureaucrat （教育機構(gòu)的官員或代表）     Airveyor: air + conveyor （氣壓輸送器）     Glideriter: glide + writer （滑寫筆）     programmatic: program + automatic（能自動安排程序和計劃的）  

68、60;  narcoma: narcotic + coma （用麻醉劑引起的昏睡）     slumlord: slum + landlord （貧民區(qū)房地產(chǎn)主）     slurch: slink + lurch （鬼鬼祟祟地徘徊）     reprography: reproduction + photography （原稿如手稿或有版權(quán)的資料影印本）     mascon: mass + concentration （質(zhì)

69、量密集，指月球表面下層高密度物質(zhì)的集中）     glassphalt: glass + asphalt （作輔路用的玻璃顆粒物）     peekture: peek + picture （色情影片）    .     EEC = European Economic Community     OPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countrie

70、s     SLAM = supersonic low altitude missile; strategic low altitude missile     EDVAC = electronic discrete variable automatic computer     GEM = ground effect machine     NSC = National Security Council     ERDA = Energy Research and Development Administration     dyno = dynamic     aggro = aggressiveness     chute = parachute     pro = professional