西方語言學流派漫談

SchoolsofLinguistics:somerandomthoughts北京外國語大學中國外語教育研究中心

劉潤清為何要講流派問題？我主張，進入一個研究領域時，第一要宏觀，第二要對思想（ideas)感興趣。宏觀：做研究，別一下扎到一個小領域、小題目里去，那樣會見木不見林。了解宏觀背景，讓你不失迷方向。對思想、哲學理念感興趣，比只對純技術性的東西感興趣，更有意義。技術是手段，提高認識是追求。1.區(qū)分流派與分支

1.1流派多指思潮,有代表人物,代表著作,主要觀點,研究方法,盛行時代,有其影響,往往有歷史視角。（它未必對領域中的諸多問題都有論述。）Schoolsrefertotrendsofthought,withtheirrepresentativefigures,works,uniqueideas,methodsandinfluenceonlaterdevelopment;adiachronicperspective.區(qū)分流派與分支

1.2分支多指領域,研究范圍,也有經(jīng)典著作,有影響的人物,多用共時觀點?？赡芏鄠€流派都對它有過貢獻。

(Branchesrefertoareasofstudy,withtheirclassics,andinfluentialfigures;oftenasynchronicperspective.)1.區(qū)分流派與分支

1.3歷史視角和共時視角一起可以畫出一個十字,像一個坐標.Thediachronicandsynchronicperspectiveswillformacross,whichlikeacoordinate.DistinctionbetweenSchoolsandBranches1.區(qū)分流派與分支1.2語言學的分支:Branches:從內(nèi)部分:語音學,音系(位)學,詞匯學,形態(tài)學,句法學,語義學,語用學(?)Distinctionfromwithin:phonetics,phonology,lexicology,morphology,syntax,semantic,pragmatics(?)1.區(qū)分流派與分支從外部分:心理語言學,社會語言學,計算語言學,神經(jīng)語言學,文化語言學,人類語言學，語料庫語言學等。Distinctionfromwithout:psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,computationlinguistics,neurolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,culturallinguistics,corpuslinguistics,etc.1.區(qū)分流派與分支大分類:理論語言學,應用語言學Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.1.區(qū)分流派與分支1.3語言學流派:傳統(tǒng)語法(600BC—18世紀)traditionalgrammar;歷史語言學(19世紀100年)historicallinguistics;現(xiàn)代語言學開端(索緖爾,20世紀初)thebeginningofmodernlinguistics;

1.區(qū)分流派與分支

歐洲功能主義(20世紀20-50)Europeanfunctionalism倫敦學派(1940—50)TheLondonSchool;系統(tǒng)功能語法(1960—現(xiàn)在)Halliday’sSystemic-functionalgrammar1.區(qū)分流派與分支美國結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(1930—50)Americanstructuralism美國轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法(1957—現(xiàn))Chomsky’sGenerativeGrammar認知語言學（today）Cognitivelinguistics2.宏觀區(qū)分流派

AMoreMacroDistinction2.1形式派注重分析語言的形式,結(jié)構(gòu),成分和成分的分布,對語言進行形式描寫和描寫的形式化,考慮語言的心理性.Theformalschool:emphasizetheformal,structuralaspectsofL,anddistributionofelements;formalizethedescriptionofL;apsychologicalperspective.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派

AMoreMacroDistinction2.2功能派注重分析語言的功能,分析不同層次上的成分的語義功能,認為功能決定形式,考慮語言的社會性.Thefunctionalschool:emphasizethefunctionalnatureofL;analyzethesemanticfunctionofelementsonalllevels;functiondeterminesform;asociolinguisticperspective.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派

AMoreMacroDistinction2.3兩派的區(qū)別形式主義者認為語言是心理現(xiàn)象;功能主義者說語言是社會現(xiàn)象.Theformalcampsaylanguageisapsychologicalfact;thefunctionalcampsaylanguageisasocialfact.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派

AMoreMacroDistinction2.形式主義者說語言普遍現(xiàn)象是人類生理遺傳;功能主義者說是來自社會對語言的普遍運用.Theformalcampsaylinguisticuniversalsaremen’sbiologicalinheritance;thefunctionalcampsaylanguagesimilaritiescomefromthecommonuseoflanguage.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派

AMoreMacroDistinction3.形式主義者說兒童習得語言是人類的內(nèi)在能力;功能主義者說這是兒童交際的需要和能力的發(fā)展.Theformalcampsaythatchildrenarebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage;thefunctionalcampsaythatlanguagelearningcomesfromchildren’sneedsanddevelopment.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派

AMoreMacroDistinction4.形式主義者把語言當成獨立系統(tǒng)研究；功能主義者把語言放在社會功能中研究。Theformalistsregardlanguageasanindependentsystem;theformalistsstudylanguageinthesocialcontextbyreferringtoitssocialfunction.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派2.4韓禮德:20世紀下半葉的基本對立陣營不是結(jié)構(gòu)主義與生成語法。最根本的兩大陣營是：以組合關系為取向的形式派（形式語法，源于邏輯和哲學），和以聚合關系為取向的功能派（功能語法，源于修辭和人種學）。形式派把語言看成一系列的結(jié)構(gòu)，這些結(jié)構(gòu)之間可以找出固定的關系（所以才有轉(zhuǎn)換一說）；他們強調(diào)語言的普遍性，把語法（他們稱之為句法）看成是語言的基礎（所以語法是任意的），因此語法圍繞著句子而展開。2.宏觀區(qū)分流派Halliday:Thebasicoppositionisnotthatbetween‘structural’and‘generative’grammars.Themorefundamentaloppositionisbetweenthosethatareprimarilysymtagmaticinorientation(byandlargetheformalgrammars,withtheirrootsinlogicandphilosophy)2.宏觀區(qū)分流派andthosethatareprimarilyparadigmatic(byandlargethefunctionalones,withtheirrootsinrhetoricandethnography).Theformerinterpretalanguagealistofstructures,amongwhich,regularrelationshipsmaybeestablished2.宏觀區(qū)分流派(hencetheintroductionoftransformation);theytendtoemphasizeuniversalfeaturesoflanguage,totakegrammar(whichtheycallsyntax)asthefoundationoflanguage(hencethegrammarisarbitrary),andsotobeorganizedaroundthesentence.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派功能派把語言看成是一個關系網(wǎng)，其基本關系借助于結(jié)構(gòu)加以實現(xiàn)；他們強調(diào)語言之間的不同點，把語義看做語言的基礎（所以語法是自然的），因此語法是圍繞著文本或語篇而展開的。兩個陣營之間有許多交叉，也有互相借鑒，但從思潮上講二者是很不同的，兩大陣營開展對話也很困難。2.宏觀區(qū)分流派Thefunctionalistsinterpretlanguageasanetworkofrelations,withstructurescominginastherealizationoftheserelationships;theytendtoemphasizevariablesamonglanguages,totakesemanticsasthefoundation(hencethegrammarisnatural),andsotobeorganizedaroundthetext,ordiscourse.2.宏觀區(qū)分流派Therearemanycross-currents,withinsightsborrowedfromonetotheother;buttheyareideologicallyfairlydifficultanditisoftendifficultytomaintainadialogue.韓禮德還說：功能語法屬于應用研究，形式語法屬于純理論研究；功能語法更近于修辭，形式語法更近于邏輯；功能語法研究實際語言能力，形式語法研究理想的語言能力；功能語法研究文本/語篇，形式語法研究句子。功能語法把文本分析看做行為方式，語言理論是成事之手段。Halliday:Ingeneralthefunctionalapproachleanstowardstheappliedratherthanthepure,therhetoricalratherthanthelogical,theactualrathertheideal,thefunctionalratherthantheformal,thetextratherthanthesentence.Theemphasisisontextanalysisasamodeofaction,atheoryoflanguageasameansofgettingthingsdone.研究流派更具理論價值:從哲學上看,如何看待世界就如何看待語言;從心理學上看,“白板說”和“內(nèi)容說”也區(qū)分兩派;從方法論上看,歸納法,演繹法,證實，證偽，還是二者結(jié)合等,也有不同。3.流派與分支的價值

SignificanceoftheTwoIt’smoretheoreticallysignificanttostudyschools;theyinvolvephilosophy,psychology(blankslate/contentapproach),andmethodology(induction，deduction，verification,falsification,abduction).3.流派與分支的價值

SignificanceoftheTwo研究分支更具使用價值:語言內(nèi)部分支也有理論價值,但有更多的使用價值;外部分支既有理論價值,又有應用價值.It’smoresignificantinpracticetostudythevariousbranchesoflinguistics,notwithouttheoreticalsignificance.3.流派與分支的價值

SignificanceoftheTwo任何學科內(nèi),不應該只注重應用研究,基礎理論研究十分重要。基礎研究費時費力，見效慢；應用研究見效快。Inanydisciplineweshouldtakeseriouslybothbasic,pureresearchandappliedresearch.Bothareusefulandimportant.5.流派介紹：傳統(tǒng)語法4.1傳統(tǒng)語法:從希臘語到拉丁語,再從拉丁語到其他歐洲語言;注重語音和詞匯,句法很少,以教學語法為主,多為規(guī)定性語法,不是描寫性語法;影響很大,時間很長;其貢獻是創(chuàng)造了描寫工具(其術語今天還在使用).TraditionalGrammar:focusonphoneticsandwords;schoolgrammar,prescriptive;influential;itstermsstillinusetoday.5.流派介紹：歷史語言學4.2歷史語言學:語言比較,語言歷史,語言譜系,語音變化規(guī)律;其后期的新語法學派為避免20世紀培養(yǎng)了人才;歷史語言學為避免20世紀現(xiàn)代語言學開端鋪平道路。HistoricalLinguistics:languagecomparison,familytreesoflanguages;lawsofsoundchange;Neogrammarians;pavedthewayformodernlinguisticsinthe20thcentury.5.流派介紹：歷史語言學5.流派介紹：歷史語言學6.流派介紹：現(xiàn)代語言學開端4.3索緒爾:現(xiàn)代語言學鼻祖;區(qū)分了語言和言語,歷時語言學和共時語言學,語言符號的任意性,所指和能指都是任意的;語言是一個系統(tǒng),一個關系系統(tǒng)(在系統(tǒng)中的位置決定其意義);語言是符號學中最典型的代表.其理論影響深遠.Saussure:fatherofmodernlinguistics;language/speech;arbitrarinessoflanguage;synchronic/diachronic;signifier/signified;systemofsigns德克海姆E.Durkheim佛洛依德SigmundFreud6.流派介紹：現(xiàn)代語言學開端德國哲學家ErnstCassirer把索緒爾與伽利略相提并論:“Inthe

wholehistoryofsciencethereisperhapsnomorefascinatingachapterthantheriseofthenewscienceoflinguistics.InitsimportanceitmayverywellbecomparedtothenewscienceofGalileo,whichinthe17thcentury,changedourwholeconceptofthephysicalworld.”7.流派介紹：早期功能學派4.4歐洲功能學派:布拉格學派,哥本哈根學派;貢獻:音位學,已知信息和待傳信息;主位和述位;主題和評述;影響大;功能主義鼻祖。FunctionalschoolsinEurope:thePragueSchool;theCopenhagenSchool:contributiontophonology;given/newinformation;theme/rheme;topic/comment;influentialaround1920-408.流派介紹：美國結(jié)構(gòu)主義4.5美國結(jié)構(gòu)主義:博厄斯,薩裴爾,布龍菲爾德,哈利斯,豪克特等;薩裴爾-沃爾夫假說,又稱語言相對論;哲學上的實證主義和“百板說”;心理學上的行為主義;Americanstructuralism:F.Boaz,E.Sapir,LeonardBloomfield,Z.Hariss,C.Hockett,theSapir-Whorfhypothesis,empiricisminphilosophy,‘blankslate’,behaviorisminpsychology.博厄斯Boaz薩佩爾SapirL.Bloomfield布龍菲爾德馮特Wundt華生Watson斯金納Skinner8.流派介紹：美國結(jié)構(gòu)主義嚴格的“發(fā)現(xiàn)程序”,二分法,不問意義和功能,看結(jié)構(gòu)分布;重證據(jù),不看主觀印象;教學上的“聽說法”影響外語教學幾十年.豪克特的確16個語言設計特征十分重要.Rigid‘procedureofdiscovery’,binarycutting,ignoremeaning;distributionofelements;emphasisonevidencethanimpression;audio-lingualmethodinteaching;designfeaturesoflanguage.9.流派介紹：喬姆斯基:生成語法4.5美國的喬姆斯基:生成語法語言上的一場革命;其語言觀,哲學上的唯理主義,心理學上認知主義;語言與生俱來,強調(diào)大腦的初始狀態(tài);目標是揭示語言本質(zhì)和人類本質(zhì);Chomsky’sGenerativegrammar:arevolution;rationalisminphilosophy;cognitivepsychology;languageisinnate;initialstateofmind;revealnatureofLtoshownatureofman.喬姆斯基Chomsky流派介紹：喬姆斯基:生成語法萊茵斯評喬氏：“Chomky’spositionisnotonlyuniquewithinlinguisticsatthepresenttime,butisprobablyunprecedentedinthewholehistoryofthesubject…Rightorwrong,Chomsky’stheoryofgrammarisundoubtedlythemostdynamicandinfluential,andnolinguistwhowishestokeepabreastofcurrentdevelopmentsinhissubjectcanaffordtoignoreChomsky’stheoreticalpronouncements.”–JohnLyonsChomsky“Itseemsplainthatlanguageacquisitionisbasedonthechild’sdiscoveryofwhatfromaformalpointofviewisadeepandabstracttheory–agenerativegrammarofhislanguage–manyoftheconceptsandprinciplesofwhichareonlyremotelyrelatedtoexperiencebylongandintricatechainsoftheunconsciousquasi-inferentialsteps.Aconsiderationofthecharacterofthegrammarthatisacquired,theChomskydegeneratequalityandnarrowlylimitedextentoftheavailabledata,thestrikinguniformityoftheresultinggrammar,andtheirindependenceofintelligence,motivation,andemotionalstate,overwiderangeofvariation,leavelittlehopethatmuchofthestructureofthelanguagecanbelearnedbyanorganisminitiallyuninformedastoitsgeneralcharacter.(--Chomsky1965：Aspectsofthetheoryofsyntax)“顯然，語言習得基于兒童發(fā)現(xiàn)從形式角度看是一種深奧、抽象的理論—即母語的一種生成語法。這種語法的許多概念和原則必須經(jīng)過漫長、復雜的無意識的亞推理過程，才與經(jīng)驗稍稍相連。稍微想一想兒童習得的語法性質(zhì)，他接觸到的語料質(zhì)量之差和范圍之小，兒童習得語言與智力、動機、情緒毫無關系，而且他們的環(huán)境因素千差萬別，最后所得語法的卻驚人地相似，讓我們很難相信，一個對語法沒有大致了解的有機體，能夠?qū)W到這麼多語言結(jié)構(gòu)知識?！眴淌希?965《句法理論面面觀》9.流派介紹：喬姆斯基:生成語法語言描寫力求形式化;句法獨立,句法為核心;觀察充分,描寫充分,解釋充分;其影響深遠,令人耳目一新;喬氏理論對哲學,心理學,計算機語言,形式化等,都有貢獻.ToformalizethedescriptionofL;independenceofsyntax;emphasisonexplanatorypower;contributiontophilosophy,psychology,computerscience;biology;bio-linguisticsChomsky:語言天賦In“TheArchitectureofLanguage”(2002:50)hewrote:“Lotsofpeoplerejecttheproposalthatlanguageisinnatebutnobodyanswersthem.Thereasonwhynobodyanswersisthattheirargumentswouldmakenosense.There’snowaytoanswerthem.Tosaythat‘languageisnotinnate’istosaythatthereisnodifferencebetweenmygranddaughter,arockandarabbit.Inotherwords,ifyoutakearock,arabbitandChomsky：語言天賦mygranddaughterandputtheminacommunitywherepeoplearetalkingEnglish,they’llalllearnEnglish.Ifpeoplebelievethat,thentheybelievethatlanguageisnotinnate.Iftheybelievethatthereisadifferencebetweenmygranddaughter,arabbitandarock,thentheybelievethatlanguageisinnate.”Chomsky:語言教學Chomsky(1988)”…teachingshouldnotbecomparedtofillingabottlewithwaterbutrathertohelpingaflowertogrowinitsownway.Asanygoodteacherknows,themethodsofinstructionandrangeofmaterialcoveredareofsmallimportantascomparedwiththesuccessinarousingthenaturalcuriosityofthestudents喚起學生的自然好奇心andstimulatingtheirinterestinChomsky：語言教學exploringontheirown激勵他們?nèi)プ晕姨剿鞯呐d趣.Whatthestudentslearnpassivelywillbequicklyforgotten.Whatthestudentsdiscoverforthemselveswhentheirnaturalcuriosityandcreativeimpulsesarearousednotonlywillberememberedbutwillbethebasisforfurtherexplorationandinquiryandperhapssignificantintellectualcontributions.10.流派介紹：系統(tǒng)功能語言學4.6倫敦語言學派:英國有悠久語言研究傳統(tǒng)，人造語言、速寫、拼法改革等起于英國，著名語音學家丹尼爾·瓊斯DanielJones、亨利·斯威特HenrySweet生于這里。倫敦學派后來成為系統(tǒng)功能語法學派。馬林諾夫斯基,佛斯,韓禮德等.意義即使用.語言環(huán)境決定意義；結(jié)構(gòu)與系統(tǒng)；語言潛勢和語言實際行為;組合關系和聚合關系；語言功能分類10.流派介紹：系統(tǒng)功能語言學TheLondonSchool:Britainhasalongtraditionoflanguagestudies.ThegreatphoneticiansHenrySweet，DanielJones。Malinovki,J.R.Firth,M.A.K.Halliday;meaningisuse;contextdeterminesmeaning;emphasisonbothstructureandsystem;linguisticpotentialandactualbehavior;paradigmatic/syntagmaticrelations;typesoffunctionsoflanguageMalinovski馬林諾夫斯基佛斯J.R.FirthM.A.K.

Halliday韓禮德MAKHalliday10.流派介紹：系統(tǒng)功能語言學語言是許多小系統(tǒng)組成的大系統(tǒng).語言的結(jié)構(gòu)由社會功能所決定.語言的三大功能;兒童語言的七大功能.在教學上和文體學上都有貢獻.Languageisasystemofmanysub-systems;threemacrofunctionoflanguage(ideational,interpersonal,textualfunction);children’ssevenfunctions;contributiontolanguageteachingandstylistics;popularinChina.語言系統(tǒng)Thematerialprocess:actionandevent.Thetransitivitysystem及物性系統(tǒng):materialprocess,mentalprocess,relationalprocess,verbalandbehavioralprocess,existentialprocess.Theactionprocess:intentionprocessandsuperventionprocess.Thementalprocess:internalizedprocessandexternalizedprocess.語言系統(tǒng)Theinternalizedprocess:1.perception,2.reactionand3.cognitionprocesses.(p.322)Therearerealizationrelationshipsbetweenvariouslevels.Thechoiceofmeaningisrealizedbythechoiceofform,whichinturnisrealizedbythechoiceofsounds.Whatcanbedoneisrealizedbywhatcanbemeant,whichisrealizedbywhatcanbesaid.語言功能FunctionsofChildren’sLanguage:Theinstrumentalfunction:tomeethismaterialneedsandservices;（工具）Theregulatoryfunction:tocontrolothers’behavior;（調(diào)節(jié)）Theinteractionalfunction:totalkwithothers;（交際）Thepersonalfunction:toexpresshisfeelings;（個人表達）語言功能5.Theheuristicfunction:toknowabouthisownsurroundings;（探索）6.Theimaginativefunction:tocreatesurroundings;（想象）7.Theinformativefunction:toprovideinformationforothers.（告知）Theadult’slanguagehastoservemanyfunctions,thesearegraduallyreducedtoasetofhighlycodedandabstractfunctions.語言功能Functionsofadult’slanguage:Ideationalfunction,interpersonalfunctionandtextualfunction.概念功能、人際功能、語篇功能TheIdeationalfunction（概念功能）：toconveynewinformationunknowntothehearer.Itisthemeaningpotential,usedinalllanguages.Itistorefertocategoriesofexperienceoftheworld.語言功能2.Theinterpersonalfunction（人際功能）:itembodiesalltheusesoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelations;thewaysthespeakerentersintoaspeechsituationandperformsaspeechact.Itisrealizedbymood語氣andmodality情態(tài).語言功能The

TextualFunction（語篇功能）:Languagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingmessagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.“Johnsawahandbaginafield.Johnwalkedacrossafieldandpickedupahandbag.JohntookahandbagtothepolicestationandJohnhandedahandbagtoapoliceman.”11.一個新學派：認知語言學認知語言學:是不是一個新流派?還是一個分支?始于20世紀70年代,關心語言與心智和大腦的關系,說語言是認知系統(tǒng)的一部分;認知系統(tǒng)是由感知,情感,范疇化,抽象化,和推理等能力組成.目標不是描寫語言行為,而是解釋引起語言行為的心理結(jié)構(gòu)和心理過程,揭示語言背后內(nèi)在的深層規(guī)律.人物:喬姆斯基,Talmy,Jackendoff,Langacker,Lakoff,Biewish,Hudson,Fillmore,Talor等.萊科夫GeorgeLakoff萊科夫GeorgeLakoff"Weareneuralbeings,"statesBerkeleycognitivescientistGeorgeLakoff."Ourbrainstaketheirinputfromtherestofourbodies.Whatourbodiesarelikeandhowtheyfunctionintheworldthusstructurestheveryconceptswecanusetothink.Wecannotthinkjustanything-onlywhatourembodiedbrainspermit."

L.TalmyPioneeringworkIncognitivelinguistics11.一個新學派：認知語言學Iamnotifthisisanewschoolorwhat.Peoplesaylanguageanditsusearebasedonourbodilyexperienceandthewaytoconceptualizeitiscalledcognitivelinguistics.Itisanewapproachtothestudyoflanguageandmind.Topicsincludestructureofcharacterization(prototype,metaphor,mentalimagery),conceptualinterfacebetweensyntaxand..11.一個新學派：認知語言學semantics,theexperientialandpragmaticbackgroundoflanguage-in-use,andtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought.11.一個新流派：認知語言學認知語言學的理論原則:語義結(jié)構(gòu)沒有普遍性;語法不獨立;語法和詞匯沒有意義區(qū)別(符號連續(xù)體).研究領域:范疇化,概念隱喻,轉(zhuǎn)喻,多義性,擬象性,語法化等.跨學科性:與哲學,心理學,人類學,計算機科學,神經(jīng)語言學等有關.有不同學派:圣地亞哥派,伯克利學派11.一個新流派：認知語言學Principles:semanticstructurehasnouniversals;syntaxisnotindependent;syntaxandvocabularyformacontinuumofsymbols,notdistinguishedinmeaning.Areas:characterization,metaphor,polysemy,iconicity,grammatizationetc.Highlycross-disciplinary:philosophy,psychology,computerscience,neurology,anthropologyetc.塔爾密Talmy’sworkCognitivesemantics:句中的視角：“Therearesomehousesinthevalley.”“Thereisahouseeverynowandthenthroughthevalley.”注意焦點：“Thebikeisnearthehouse.”“Thehouseisnearthebike.”動力學：“Theballrolledalongthegreen.”“Theballkeptrollingalongthegreen.”塔爾密Talmy’swork事件的時間劃分：Thebeaconflashed.Thebeaconkeptflashing.Thebeaconflashed5timesinarow.Thebeaconskeptflashing5timesatastretch.Thebeaconskeptflashing5timesatastretchfor3hours.塔爾密Talmy’sworkTowardaCognitiveSemanticsCambridge,MA:MITPress2000VolumeI

ConceptStructuringSystemsPart1:FoundationsofConceptualStructuringinLanguage

Ch.1TheRelationofGrammartoCognition

Part2:ConfigurationalStructure

Ch.2FictiveMotioninLanguageand"Ception"

Ch.3HowLanguageStructuresSpace

塔爾密Talmy’sworkPart3:Attention

Ch.4TheWindowingofAttentioninLanguage

Ch.5FigureandGroundinLanguage

Ch.6StructuresthatRelateEvents

Part4:ForceandCausation

Ch.7ForceDynamicsinLanguageandCognition

Ch.8TheSemanticsofCausation

References

Index塔爾密Talmy’sworkVolumeII

TypologyandProcessinConceptStructuringPart1:TypologicalPatternsintheRepresentationofEventStructure

Ch.1LexicalizationPatterns

Ch.2SurveyingLexicalizationPatterns

Ch.3ATypologyofEventIntegration

Ch.4BorrowingSemanticSpace:DiachronicHybridization

塔爾密Talmy’sworkPart3:OtherCognitiveSystems

Ch.7TheCognitiveCultureSystem

Ch.8ACognitiveFrameworkforNarrativeStructure

Part2:SemanticInteraction

Ch.5SemanticConflictandResolution

Ch.6CommunicativeGoalsandMeans:TheirCognitiveInteraction

References

Index萊科夫Lakoff’sworkTheybegantothinkofexpressionslike“It’sbeenalongbumpyroad”,“Themarriageisontherock”,“It’soffthetrack”,“We’respinningourwheels”,“We’regoingindifferentdirections”,“Weareatacrossroadsintherelationship”.Thentheygeneralized:Ineverycase,theloverelationshipisavehicle.Ineverycase,thecommonlifegoalsoftheloversaredestinationstheywanttogettotogether.Andineverycasethedifficultiesintherelationshiparethings萊科夫Lakoff’sworkthatkeepthemfromreachingthedestination:spinningwheels,dead-endstreet,goingindifferentdirections,andsoon.Thetravelersmappedthelovers,vehiclesthemappedrelationships.Thisisakindofmathematicalmapping.Thereasoningthatyoudoabouttravelismappedontothereasoningyoudoaboutlove.“LOVEISAJOURNEYisexactlyinthemapping”.萊科夫Lakoff’sworkWhatisaconceptinthebrain?Howdowegetconceptandhowdowegetcomplicatedconceptslikegrasping,andhowdowegetabstractconceptlikegraspingideasorcausationorsomethinglikethat?Sotheideaisthis:meaningismentalstimulationinthebrainusingyourphysicalbrain.Mentalstimulationisimaginingsomething.SoifIgiveyouasentencelike“Johnpickedupthebottle”,inordertounderstandthatsentence,youhavetoat萊科夫Lakoff’sworkleastbeabletoimaginesomeonepickingupthebottle.Ifyoucannotevenimagineit,thenyoucannotunderstandthesentence.Sounderstandingrequiresimaginingsomethingasifyouweredoingit,seeingit.thatrequiresthesamepartofthebrainasdoingitorseeingit.Howdoesthatrelatetotheworld?Aconceptistheminimalunitoflinguisticmeaning,themeaningofwordsaremadeupofconcepts.Thereisaminimalunitofreasoning,whichusesconcepts.萊科夫Lakoff’sworkThesamepartofthebrainthatmovesyourbodyalsoreasonsaboutaspect.Wecallourtheorysimulationsemanticsbecauseitsaysmeaningismentalsimulationusingthosepartsofthebrainthatyouusefortheimaginationofbothseeingandacting.Soconceptshaveaninternalstructurecalledneuralparameters.Andneuralparameterissomethingasdiscoveredintheneuralsystem.Forexample,somethinglikereachingforanobjectmakesuseoftheparameterofdirection.

11.一個新流派：認知語言學Lakoff,George.1987.Women,Fire,andDangerousThings.WhatCategoriesRevealabouttheMind.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.LakoffG&JohnsonM(1999).PhilosophyintheFlesh:theEmbodiedMindanditsChallengetoWesternThought.NY:BasicBooks.LangackerR(2002).Concept,Image,andSymbol:theCognitiveBasisofGrammar.Berlin/NY:MoutondeGruyter.12.參考書劉潤清,《西方語言學流派》，外研社,1995。LiuRunqing&FengZongxin,SchoolsandTheoriesofLinguistics,NanjingNormalUniversityPress,2004

12.參考書LiuRunning&CuiGang,ReadingsinLinguistics:NinetyYearssinceSaussure.(劉潤清，崔剛：《現(xiàn)代語言學名著選讀》.外研社，2009劉潤清，文旭：《新編語言學教程》外研社，2005（inEnglish)%r#oXlTiQeNbK8G5D2A-x*t$qZnVkShPdMaI7F4C0z)w&s!pXmUjRfOcL9H6E2B+y(u%r#oWlThQeNbJ8G5D1A-x*t$qYnVkSgPdMaI7F3C0z)v&s!pXmUiRfOcK9H6E2B+x(u%rZoWlThQeMbJ8G4D1A-w*t!qYnVjSgPdLaI6F3C0y)v&s#pXlUiRfNcK9H5E2B+x(u$rZoWkThQeMbJ7G4D1z-w*t!qYmVjSgOdLaI6F3B0y)v%s#pXlUiQfNcK8H5E2A+x*u$rZnWkThPeMaJ7G4C1z-w&t!qYmVjRgOdL9I6F3B0y(v%s#oXlUiQfNbK8H5D2A+x*u$qZnWkShPeMaJ7F4C1z)w&t!pYmUjRgOcL9I6E3B+y(v%r#oXlTiQfNbK8G5D2A-x*u$qZnVkShPdMaJ7F4C0z)w&s!pYmUjRfOcL9H6E3B+y(u%r#oWlTiQeNbJ8G5D1A-x*t$qYnVkSgPdMaI7F3C0z)v&s!pXmUjRfOcK9H6E2B+y(u%rZoWlThQeNbJ8G4D1A-w*t$qYnVjSgPdLaI7F3C0y)v&s#pXmUiRfNcK9H5E2B+x(u$rZoWkThQeMbJ8G4D1z-w*t!qYnVjSgOdLaI6F3C0y)v%s#pXlUiRfNcK8H5E2A+x(u$rZnWkThPeMbJ7G4C1z-w&t!qYmVjRgOdL9I6F3B0y(v%s#oXlUiQfNcK8H5D2A+x*u$rZnWkShPeMaJ7G4C1z)w&t!pYmVjRgOcL9I6E3B0y(v%r#oXlTiQfNbK8G5D2A-x*u$qZnVkShPdMaJ7F4C1z)w&s!pYmUjRgOcL9H6E3B+y(v%r#oWlTiQeNbK8G5D1A-x*t$qZnVkSgPdMaI7F4C0z)v&s!pXmUjRfOcK9H6E2B+y(u%r#oWlThaJ7F4C1z)w&s!pYmUjRgOcL9H6E3B+y(v%r#oWlTiQeNbK8G5D1A-x*t$qZnVkSgPdMaI7F4C0z)v&s!pXmUjRfOcL9H6E2B+y(u%r#oWlThQeNbJ8G5D1A-w*t$qYnVkSgPdLaI7F3C0z)v&s#pXmUiRfOcK9H5E2B+x(u%rZoWkThQeMbJ8G4D1A-w*t!qYnVjSgPdLaI6F3C0y)v&s#pXlUiRfNcK9H5E2A+x(u$rZoWkThPeMbJ7G4D1z-w&t!qYmVjSgOdL9I6F3B0y)v%s#oXlUiQfNcK8H5E2A+x*u$rZnWkThPeMaJ7G4C1z-w&t!pYmVjRgOdL9I6E3B0y(v%s#oXlTiQfNbK8H5D2A-x*u$qZnWkShPdMaJ7F4C1z)w&t!pYmUjRgOcL9I6E3B+y(v%r#oXlTiQeNbK8G5D2A-x*t$qZnVkShPdMaI7F4C0z)w&s!pXmUjRfOcL9H6E2B+y(u%r#oWlTiQeNbJ8G5D1A-x*t$qYnVkSgPdMaI7F3C0z)v&s!pXmUiRfOcK9H6E2B+x(u%rZoWlThQeMbJ8G4D1A-w*t!qYnVjSgPdLaI6F3C0y)v&s#pXmUiRfNcK9H5E2B+x(u$rZoWkThQeMbJ7G4D1z-w*t!qYmVjSgOdLaI6F3B0y)v%s#pXlUiQfNcK8H5E2A+x*u$rZnWkThPeMbJ7G4C1z-w&t!qYmVjRgOdL9I6F3B0y(v%s#oXlUiQfNbK8H5D2A+x*u$qZnWkShPeMaJ7F4C1z)w&t!pYmUjRgOcL9I6E3B+y(v%r#oXlTiQfNbK8G5D2A-x*u$qZnVkShPdMaJ7F4C0z)s#oXlUiQfNbK8H5D2A+x*u$qZnWkShPeMaJ7F4C1z)w&t!pYmVjRgOcL9I6E3B0y(v%r#oXlTiQfNbK8G5D2A-x*u$qZnVkShPdMaJ7F4C0z)w&s!pYmUjRfOcL9H6E3B+y(u%r#oWlTiQeNbK8G5D1A-x*t$qZnVkSgPdMaI7F4C0z)v&s!pXmUjRfOcK9H6E2B+y(u%rZoWlThQeNbJ8G4D1A-w*t$qYnVjSgPdLaI7F3C0y)v&s#pXmUiRfOcK9H5E2B+x(u%rZoWkThQeMbJ8G4D1z-w*t!qYnVjSgOdLaI6F3C0y)v%s#pXlUiRfNcK8H5E2A+x(u$rZnWkThPeMbJ7G4D1z-w&t!qYmVjSgOdL9I6F3B0y)v%s#oXlUiQfNcK8H5D2A+x*u$rZnWkShPeMaJ7G4C1z)w&t!pYmVjRgOcL9I6E3B0y(v%r#oXlTiQfNbK8H5D2A-x*u$qZnWkShPdMaJ7F4C1z)w&s!pYmUjRgOcL9H6E3B+y(v%r#oWlTiQeNbK8G5D1A-x*t$qZnVkSgPdMaI7F4C0z)w&s!pXmUjRfOcL9H6E2B+y(u%r#oWlThQeNbJ8G5D1A-w*t$qYnVkSgPdLaI7F3C0z)