Section12ModesofDiscourse(7)Argumentative一DevelopmentI.KeytotheExerciseWhereisargumentativewritinglocatedonthespectrumofrhetoric?Findouttheanswerinthelecture.Whatarethethreecategoriesofpersuasiveappealinclassicrhetoric?Findouttheanswerinthelecture.(1)Whatisargumentationbyfactualreasoningandwhatisargumentationbyemotionalappeal?Findouttheanswerinthelecture.Isthefollowingparagraphfactualreasoningoremotionalappeal?Thisshortparagraphstronglyrejects"they."Theeffectiveuseofstructuralparallelismandrepetitionofthesamewordsorwordsinsimilarmeaningbringsaboutgreatemphasisonwhattheauthorsays.Thereforeitisfactualreasoningbutwithstrongemotionalappeal.Whatarethetwogeneralwaysoffactualorlogicalreasoning?Identifyeachofthemusedinthefollowingparagraphs.Thefirstparagraphusesdeductivemethodtodevelop.Thefirstsentenceisthestatement,andtherestarethesupportingpoints.Thesecondparagraphusesinductivemethodtodevelop.Itstartsfromspecific“green”and“sour”examplesandcometotheconclusionthatallgreenapplesaresour.Inhis"LetterfromBirminghamJail,“MartinLutherKing,Jr.refutestheauthority9sclaimthattheBlackPeopleusesviolenceintheirstruggleagainstracialdiscrimination.ReadthefollowingparagraphfromtheletterandtellhowMartinLutherKing,Jr.usesemotionalappealtoaidlogicorrationality.Inthisparagraph,theauthorfirstmakesthestatementthat“Therecanbenogainsayingthefactthatracialinjusticeengulfsthiscommunity；"andthenhecitesthe""experiencedgrosslyunjusttreatment"asapowerfulsupportingexample*brutallybombingtheNegrohomesandchurchesandconsistentlyrefusingtoengageingood-faithnegotiation.Thisemotionaldescriptionoftheracists'brutalitynotonlyprovestheauthor'sstatementbutatthesametimearousesgreatsympathywiththebrutallytreatedblackbrotherinTexas.Hewrites:"AllChristiansknowthatthecoloredpeoplewillreceiveequalrightseventually,butitispossiblethatyouareintoogreatareligioushurry.IthastakenChristianityalmosttwothousandyearstoaccomplishwhatithas.TheteachingsofChristtaketimetocometoearth."Suchanattitudestemsfromatragicmisconceptionoftime,fromthestrangelyrationalnotionthatthereissomethingintheveryflowoftimethatw川inevitablycureall川s.Actually,timeitselfisneutral;itcanbeusedeitherdestructivelyorconstructively.MoreandmoreIfeelthatthepeopleofillwillhaveusedtimemuchmoreeffectivelythanhavethepeopleofgoodwill.Wewillhavetorepentinthisgenerationnotmerelyforthehatefulwordsandactionsofthebadpeoplebutfortheappallingsilenceofthegoodpeople.Humanprogressneverrollsinonwheelsofinevitability;itcomesthroughthetirelesseffortsofmenwillingtobeco-workerswithGod,andwithoutthishardwork,timeitselfbecomesanallyoftheforcesofsocialstagnation.Wemustusetimecreatively,intheknowledgethatthetimeisalwaysripetodoright.Nowisthetimetomakerealthepromiseofdemocracyandtransformourpendingnationalelegyintoacreativepsalmofbrotherhood.Nowisthetimetoliftournationalpolicyfromthequicksandofracialinjusticetothesolidrockofhumandignity.YouspeakofouractivityinBirminghamasextreme.AtfirstIwasratherdisappointedthatfellowclergymenwouldseemynonviolenteffortsasthoseofanextremist.IbeganthinkingaboutthefactthatIstandinthemiddleoftwoopposingforcesintheNegrocommunity.Oneisaforceofcomplacency,madeupinpartofNegroeswho,asaresultoflongyearsofoppression,aresodrainedofself-respectandasenseof“somebodiness"thattheyhaveadjustedtosegregation;andinpartofafewmiddleclassNegroeswho,becauseofadegreeofacademicandeconomicsecurityandbecauseinsomewaystheyprofitbysegregation,havebecomeinsensitivetotheproblemsofthemasses.Theotherforceisoneofbitternessandhatred,anditcomesperilouslyclosetoadvocatingviolence.Itisexpressedinthevariousblacknationalistgroupsthatarespringingupacrossthenation,thelargestandbest-knownbeingElijahMuhammad'sMuslimmovement.NourishedbytheNegro'sfrustrationoverthecontinuedexistenceofracialdiscrimination,thismovementismadeupofpeoplewhohavelostfaithinAmerica,whohaveabsolutelyrepudiatedChristianity,andwhohaveconcludedthatthewhitemanisanincorrigible“devil.”Ihavetriedtostandbetweenthesetwoforces,sayingthatweneedemulateneitherthe“do-nothingism”ofthecomplacentnorthehatredanddespairoftheblacknationalist.Forthereisthemoreexcellentwayofloveandnonviolentprotest.IamgratefultoGodthat,throughtheinfluenceoftheNegrochurch,thewayofnonviolencebecameanintegralpartofourstruggle.Ifthisphilosophyhadnotemerged,bynowmanystreetsoftheSouthwould,Iamconvinced,beflowingwithblood.AndIamfurtherconvincedthatifourwhitebrothersdismissas"rabble-rousers"and"outsideagitators"thoseofuswhoemploynonviolentdirectaction,andiftheyrefusetosupportournonviolentefforts,millionsofNegroeswill,outoffrustrationanddespair,seeksolaceandsecurityinblack-nationalistideologiesadevelopmentthatwouldinevitablyleadtoafrighteningracialnightmare.Oppressedpeoplecannotremainoppressedforever.Theyearningforfreedomeventuallymanifestsitself,andthatiswhathashappenedtotheAmericanNegro.Somethingwithinhasremindedhimofhisbirthrightoffreedom,andsomethingwithouthasremindedhimthatitcanbegained.Consciouslyorunconsciously,hehasbeencaughtupbytheZeitgeist,andwithhisblackbrothersofAfricaandhisbrownandyellowbrothersofAsia,SouthAmericaandtheCaribbean,theUnitedStatesNegroismovingwithasenseofgreaturgencytowardthepromisedlandofracialjustice.IfonerecognizesthisvitalurgethathasengulfedtheNegrocommunity,oneshouldreadilyunderstandwhypublicdemonstrationsaretakingplace.TheNegrohasmanypent-upresentmentsandlatentfrustrations,andhemustreleasethem.Solethimmarch;lethimmakeprayerpilgrimagestothecityhall;lethimgoonfreedomrides-andtrytounderstandwhyhemustdoso.Ifhisrepressedemotionsarenotreleasedinnonviolentways,theywillseekexpressionthroughviolence;thisisnotathreatbutafactofhistory.SoIhavenotsaidtomypeople:"Getridofyourdiscontent.,,Rather,Ihavetriedtosaythatthisnormalandhealthydiscontentcanbechanneledintothecreativeoutletofnonviolentdirectaction.Andnowthisapproachisbeingtermedextremist.ButthoughIwasinitiallydisappointedatbeingcategorizedasanextremist,asIcontinuedtothinkaboutthematterIgraduallygainedameasureofsatisfactionfromthelabel.WasnotJesusanextremistforlove:"Loveyourenemies,blessthemthatcurseyou,dogoodtothemthathateyou,andprayforthemwhichdespitefullyuseyou,andpersecuteyou."WasnotAmosanextremistforjustice:uLetjusticerolldownlikewatersandrighteousnesslikeanever-flowingstream/5WasnotPaulanextremistfortheChristiangospel:"IbearinmybodythemarksoftheLordJesus.nWasnotMartinLutheranextremist:"HereIstand;Icannotdootherwise,sohelpmeGod."AndJohnBunyan:ulwillstayinjailtotheendofmydaysbeforeImakeabutcheryofmyconscience.nAndAbrahamLincoln:"Thisnationcannotsurvivehalfslaveandhalffree.55AndThomasJefferson:"Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evident,thatallmenarecreatedequal...nSothequestionisnotwhetherwewillbeextremists,butwhatkindofextremistswewillbe.Willwebeextremistsforhateorforlove?Willwebeextremistsforthepreservationofinjusticeorfortheextensionofjustice?InthatdramaticsceneonCalvary'shillthreemenwerecrucified.Wemustneverforgetthatallthreewerecrucifiedforthesamecrime—thecrimeofextremism.Twowereextremistsforimmorality,andthusfellbelowtheirenvironment.Theother,JesusChrist,wasanextremistforlove,truthandgoodness,andtherebyroseabovehisenvironment.PerhapstheSouth,thenationandtheworldareindireneedofcreativeextremists.Ihadhopedthatthewhitemoderatewouldseethisneed.PerhapsIwastoooptimistic;perhapsIexpectedtoomuch.IsupposeIshouldhaverealizedthatfewmembersoftheoppressorracecanunderstandthedeepgroansandpassionateyearningsoftheoppressedrace,andstillfewerhavethevisiontoseethatinjusticemustberootedoutbystrong,persistentanddeterminedaction.Iamthankful,however,thatsomeofourwhitebrothersintheSouthhavegraspedthemeaningofthissocialrevolutionandcommittedthemselvestoit.Theyarestilltoofewinquantity,buttheyarebiginquality.Some-suchasRalphMcG川，LillianSmith,HarryGolden,JamesMcBrideDabbs,AnnBradenandSarahPattonBoyle-havewrittenaboutourstruggleineloquentandpropheticterms.OthershavemarchedwithusdownnamelessstreetsoftheSouth.Theyhavelanguishedinfilthy,roach-infestedjails,sufferingtheabuseandbrutalityofpolicemenwhoviewthemas“dirtyniggerlovers.nUnlikesomanyoftheirmoderatebrothersandsisters,theyhaverecognizedtheurgencyofthemomentandsensedtheneedforpowerful“action”antidotestocombatthediseaseofsegregation.33Letmetakenoteofmyothermajordisappointment.Ihavebeensogreatlydisappointedwiththewhitechurchanditsleadership.Ofcourse,therearesomenotableexceptions.Iamnotunmindfulofthefactthateachofyouhastakensomesignificantstandsonthisissue.Icommendyou,ReverendStallings,foryourChristianstandonthispastSunday,inwelcomingNegroestoyourworshipserviceonanon-segregatedbasis.IcommendtheCatholicleadersofthisstateforintegratingSpringHillCollegeseveralyearsago.34Butdespitethesenotableexceptions,ImusthonestlyreiteratethatIhavebeendisappointedwiththechurch.Idonotsaythisasoneofthosenegativecriticswhocanalwaysfindsomethingwrongwiththechurch.Isaythisasaministerofthegospel,wholovesthechurch;whowasnurturedinitsbosom;whohasbeensustainedbyitsspiritualblessingsandwhowillremaintruetoitaslongasthecordofRioshalllengthen.35WhenIwassuddenlycatapultedintotheleadershipofthebusprotestinMontgomery,Alabama,afewyearsago,Ifeltwewouldbesupportedbythewhitechurch,feltthatthewhiteministers,priestsandrabbisoftheSouthwouldbeamongourstrongestallies.Instead,somehavebeenoutrightopponents,refusingtounderstandthefreedommovementandmisrepresentingitsleaders;alltoomanyothershavebeenmorecautiousthancourageousandhaveremainedsilentbehindtheanesthetizingsecurityofstained-glasswindows.36Inspiteofmyshattereddreams,IcametoBirminghamwiththehopethatthewhitereligiousleadershipofthiscommunitywouldseethejusticeofourcauseand,withdeepmoralconcern,wouldserveasthechannelthroughwhichourjustgrievancescouldreachthepowerstructure.Ihadhopedthateachofyouwouldunderstand.ButagainIhavebeendisappointed.37Ihaveheardnumeroussouthernreligiousleadersadmonishtheirworshiperstocomplywithadesegregationdecisionbecauseitisthelaw,butIhavelongedtohearwhiteministersdeclare:TollowthisdecreebecauseintegrationismorallyrightandbecausetheNegroisyourbrother/5InthemidstofblatantinjusticesinflictedupontheNegro,Ihavewatchedwhitechurchmenstandonthesidelineandmouthpiousirrelevanciesandsanctimonioustrivialities.Inthemidstofamightystruggletoridournationofracialandeconomicinjustice,Ihaveheardmanyministerssay:"Thosearesocialissues,withwhichthegospelhasnorealconcern."AndIhavewatchedmanychurchescommitthemselvestoacompletelyotherworldlyreligionwhichmakesastrange,onBiblicaldistinctionbetweenbodyandsoul,betweenthesacredandthesecular.38IhavetraveledthelengthandbreadthofAlabama,Mississippiandalltheothersouthernstates.OnswelteringsummerdaysandcrispautumnmorningsIhavelookedattheSouth'sbeautifulchurcheswiththeirloftyspirespointingheavenward.Ihavebeheldtheimpressiveoutlinesofhermassivereligious-educationbuildings.OverandoverIhavefoundmyselfasking:"Whatkindofpeopleworshiphere?WhoistheirGod?WhereweretheirvoiceswhenthelipsofGovernorBarnettdrippedwithwordsofinterpositionandnullification?WhereweretheywhenGovernorWallacegaveaclarioncallfordefianceandhatred?WhereweretheirvoicesofsupportwhenbruisedandwearyNegromenandwomendecidedtorisefromthedarkdungeonsofcomplacencytothebrighthillsofcreativeprotest?”39Yes,thesequestionsarestillinmymind.IndeepdisappointmentIhaveweptoverthelaxityofthechurch.Butbeassuredthatmytearshavebeentearsoflove.Therecanbenodeepdisappointmentwherethereisnotdeeplove.Yes,Ilovethechurch.HowcouldIdootherwise?Iamintheratheruniquepositionofbeingtheson,thegrandsonandthegreat-grandsonofpreachers.Yes,IseethechurchasthebodyofChrist.But,oh!Howwehaveblemishedandscarredthatbodythroughsocialneglectandthroughfearofbeingnonconformists.40TherewasatimewhenthechurchwasverypowerfulinthetimewhentheearlyChristiansrejoicedatbeingdeemedworthytosufferforwhattheybelieved.Inthosedaysthechurchwasnotmerelyathermometerthatrecordedtheideasandprinciplesofpopularopinion;itwasathermostatthattransformedthemoresofsociety.WhenevertheearlyChristiansenteredatown,thepeopleinpowerbecamedisturbedandimmediatelysoughttoconvicttheChristiansforbeing"disturbersofthepeace"and"outsideagitators"ButtheChristianspressedon,intheconvictionthattheywere“acolonyofheaven,ncalledtoobeyGodratherthanman.Smallinnumber,theywerebigincommitment.TheyweretooGodintoxicatedtobe"astronomicallyintimidated.nBytheireffortandexampletheybroughtanendtosuchancientevilsasinfanticideandgladiatorialcontests.41Thingsaredifferentnow.Sooftenthecontemporarychurchisaweak,ineffectualvoicewithanuncertainsound.Sooftenitisanarchdefenderofthestatusquo.Farfrombeingdisturbedbythepresenceofthechurch,thepowerstructureoftheaveragecommunityisconsoledbythechurch'ssilentandoftenevenvocalsanctionofthingsastheyare.42ButthejudgmentofGodisuponthechurchasneverbefore.Iftoday5schurchdoesnotrecapturethesacrificialspiritoftheearlychurch,itwillloseitsauthenticity,forfeittheloyaltyofmillions,andbedismissedasanirrelevantsocialclubwithnomeaningforthetwentiethcentury.EverydayImeetyoungpeoplewhosedisappointmentwiththechurchhasturnedintooutrightdisgust.43PerhapsIhaveonceagainbeentoooptimistic.Isorganizedreligiontooinextricablyboundtothestatusquotosaveournationandtheworld?PerhapsImustturnmyfaithtotheinnerspiritualchurch,thechurchwithinthechurch,asthetrueekklesiaandthehopeoftheworld.ButagainIamthankfultoGodthatsomenoblesoulsfromtheranksoforganizedreligionhavebrokenloosefromtheparalyzingchainsofconformityandjoinedusasactivepartnersinthestruggleforfreedom.TheyhavelefttheirsecurecongregationsandwalkedthestreetsofAlbany,Georgia,withus.TheyhavegonedownthehighwaysoftheSouthontortuousridesforfreedom.Yes,theyhavegonetojailwithus.Somehavebeendismissedfromtheirchurches,havelostthesupportoftheirbishopsandfellowministers.Buttheyhaveactedinthefaiththatrightdefeatedisstrongerthaneviltriumphant.Theirwitnesshasbeenthespiritualsaltthathaspreservedthetruemeaningofthegospelinthesetroubledtimes.Theyhavecarvedatunnelofhopethroughthedarkmountainofdisappointment.44Ihopethechurchasawholewillmeetthechallengeofthisdecisivehour.Butevenifthechurchdoesnotcometotheaidofjustice,Ihavenodespairaboutthefuture.IhavenofearabouttheoutcomeofourstruggleinBirmingham,evenifourmotivesareatpresentmisunderstood.WewillreachthegoaloffreedominBirmingham,hereandalloverthenation,becausethegoalofAmericaisfreedom.Abusedandscornedthoughwemaybe,ourdestinyistiedupwithAmerica'sdestiny.BeforethepilgrimslandedatPlymouth,wewerehere.BeforethepenofJeffersonetchedthemajesticwordsoftheDeclarationofIndependenceacrossthepagesofhistory,wewerehere.Formorethantwocenturiesourforebearslaboredinthiscountrywithoutwages;theymadecottonking;theybuiltthehomesoftheirmasterswhilesufferinggrossinjusticeandshamefulhumiliation-andyetoutofabottomlessvitalitytheycontinuedtothriveanddevelop.Iftheinexpressiblecrueltiesofslaverycouldnotstopus,theoppositionwenowfacewillsurelyfail.Wewillwinourfreedombecausethesacredheritageofournationandtheeternalw川ofGodareembodiedinourechoingdemands.45BeforeclosingIfeelimpelledtomentiononeotherpointinyourstatementthathastroubledmeprofoundly.YouwarmlycommendedtheBirminghampoliceforceforkeeping“order"and"preventingviolence.nIdoubtthatyouwouldhavesowarmlycommendedthepoliceforceifyouhadseenitsdogssinkingtheirteethintounarmed,nonviolentNegroes.IdoubtthatyouwouldsoquicklycommendthepolicemenifyouweretoobservetheiruglyandinhumanetreatmentofNegroeshereinthecityjail;ifyouweretowatchthempushandcurseoldNegrowomenandyoungNegrogirls;ifyouweretoseethemslapandkickoldNegromenandyoungboys;ifyouweretoobservethem,astheydidontwooccasions,refusetogiveusfoodbecausewewantedtosingourgracetogether.IcannotjoinyouinyourpraiseoftheBirminghampolicedepartment.46Itistruethatthepolicehaveexercisedadegreeofdisciplineinhandingthedemonstrators.Inthissensetheyhaveconductedthemselvesrather<^nonviolently,,inpublic.Butforwhatpurpose?Topreservetheevilsystemofsegregation.OverthepastfewyearsIhaveconsistentlypreachedthatnonviolencedemandsthatthemeansweusemustbeaspureastheendsweseek.Ihavetriedtomakeclearthatitiswrongtouseimmoralmeanstoattainmoralends.ButnowImustaffirmthatitisjustaswrong,orperhapsevenmoreso,tousemoralmeanstopreserveimmoralends.PerhapsMr.Connorandhispolicemenhavebeenrathernonviolentinpublic,aswasChiefPritchettinAlbany,Georgia,buttheyhaveusedthemoralmeansofnonviolencetomaintaintheimmoralendofracialinjustice.AsT.S.Eliothassaid:“Thelasttemptationisthegreatesttreason:Todotherightdeedforthewrongreason.47IwishyouhadcommendedtheNegrosit-innersanddemonstratorsofBirminghamfortheirsublimecourage,theirwillingnesstosufferandtheiramazingdisciplineinthemidstofgreatprovocation.OnedaytheSouthwillrecognizeitsrealheroes.TheywillbetheJamesMerediths,withthenoblesenseofpurposethatenablesthemtofacejeering,andhostilemobs,andwiththeagonizinglonelinessthatcharacterizesthelifeofthepioneer.Theywillbeold,oppressed,batteredNegrowomen,symbolizedinaseventy-two-year-oldwomaninMontgomery,Alabama,whoroseupwithasenseofdignityandwithherpeopledecidednottoridesegregatedbuses,andwhorespondedwithungrammaticalprofunditytoonewhoinquiredaboutherweariness:"Myfeetsistired,butmysoulisatrest.55Theywillbetheyounghighschoolandcollegestudents,theyoungministersofthegospelandahostoftheirelders,courageouslyandnonviolentlysittinginatlunchcountersandwillinglygoingtojailforconscience5sake.OnedaytheSouthw川knowthatwhenthesedisinheritedchildrenofGodsatdownatlunchcounters,theywereinrealitystandingupforwhatisbestintheAmericandreamandforthemostsacredvaluesinourJudaeo-Christianheritage,therebybringingournationbacktothosegreatwellsofdemocracywhichweredugdeepbythefoundingfathersintheirformulationoftheConstitutionandtheDeclarationofIndependence.NeverbeforehaveIwrittensolongaletter.Tmafraiditismuchtoolongtotakeyourprecioustime.IcanassureyouthatitwouldhavebeenmuchshorterifIhadbeenwritingfromacomfortabledesk,butwhatelsecanonedowhenheisaloneinanarrowjailcell,otherthanwritelongletters,thinklongthoughtsandpraylongprayers?IfIhavesaidanythinginthisletterthatoverstatesthetruthandindicatesanunreasonableimpatience,Ibegyoutoforgiveme.IfIhavesaidanythingthatunderstatesthetruthandindicatesmyhavingapatiencethatallowsmetosettleforanythinglessthanbrotherhood,IbegGodtoforgiveme.Ihopethisletterfindsyoustronginthefaith.Ialsohopethatcircumstanceswillsoonmakeitpossibleformetomeeteachofyou,notasanintegrationistoracivilrightsleaderbutasafellowclergymanandaChristianbrother.Letusallhopethatthedarkcloudsofracialprejudicew川soonpassawayandthedeepfogofmisunderstandingwillbeliftedfromourfear-drenchedcommunities,andinsomenottoodistanttomorrowtheradiantstarsofloveandbrotherhoodwillshineoverourgreatnationwithalltheirscintillatingbeauty.2.Sample(2)MetaphoricalThinkingDanielKiesIn“TheEnglishLanguageisMyEnemy,"OssieDavisarguesthatEnglishisinherentlyracistbypresentingthereaderwithtwolistsofsynonymsforthewordswhiteandblack.Thelistspresentclearlydivergentsetsofmeaningsassociatedwiththetwowords.Whiteisassociatedwithpurity,cleanliness,andgoodness.Blackisassociatedwithevil,dirt,anddeath.ThedifferencesinmeaningsuggesttoDavisthatthelanguageisinherentlybiasedagainstblacks.Whilethedifferencesinmeaningareundeniable,Isuggestthatthedifferencesareduetoabilityofhumanstothinkmetaphorically,notracismnecessarily.ThesuiciderateintheScandinaviancountriesiscomparativelyhigherthantherateintherestoftheworldandhighestinwinter.Horrorfilmsaretypicallysetatnight;thinkofHalloweenandNightoftheLivingDeadtonamejusttwoexamples.Infact,Freddie,apopularhorrorvillainoflate,mostoftenappearstopeopleatnight,whiletheydream.Thesetwodifferentfactsshareonethingincommon—darkness.Beingasfarnorthastheyare(rightontheArcticCircle),thecountriesofSweden,Norway,andFinlandcanexperienceuptotwentyhoursofdarknesseachdayinmidwinter.Seasonaldepressionisacommonillnessthere,anditseffectsontheindividuaPswilltosurvivecanbecatastrophic.However,theScandinaviannationsarenotunusualinthisregard:seasonaldepressioniscommoninalllatitudesthatexperiencelongwinternights,andthefearofthedarkisacommonhumantrait,asparentsoftoddlersallaroundtheworldwillreadilyattest.ThesetwofactssupportasinglegeneralizationaboutushumansgenerallyandWestern(European-oriented)cultureparticularly:darknessrepresentstheUNKNOWNwhilelight(andvision)representsKNOWLEDGE.Inotherwords,thepsychologyandthoughtofmostWesternersportraydarknessasametaphorfortheunknown(thereforethedangerous)andlightasametaphorfortheknown.Ametaphor,remember,istheprocessofemployingoneconcepttorepresentanotherconcept.Infact,thosetwometaphorsoflightanddarkorganize(andpossiblycontrol)thewayweWesternersthinkaboutknowledgeorthelackofit.Ourlanguage(andotherEuropeanlanguagesaswell)isfilledwithexpressionsthatshowhowourthinkingaboutknowledgeisorganizedbythosetwometaphorsoflight(andvision)versusdarkness.ConsiderthefollowingexamplesoftheLIGHT(ANDVISION)ISKNOWINGmetaphor:Iseewhatyou'resaying.Itlooksdifferentfrommypointofview.Whatisyouroutlookonthat?Iviewitdifferently.Pvegotthewholepicture.Thafsaninsightfulidea.Sheisabrilliantwoman.Theargumentwasclear.Couldyouelucidateonthat?Ifsatransparentargument.Similarly,considerthesefewexamplesoftheDARKNESSISIGNORANCE(literallyalackofknowledge*)metaphor:Itwasamurkydiscussion.Thediscussionwasopaque.Ididn5tfollowhisthinking;Tmstillinthedark.Let5sseeifwecanJtthrowalittlelightonthesubject.WhatthoseexpressionsteachusisthatweWesternersmetaphoricallylinkthoughtwithlight,ignorance(andfear)withdark.Granted,DavismightfeelthatIamevadinghispointbyshiftingtheattentionfromtherealityofracistlanguagetosomeesotericdiscussionofthepsychologyunderlyingsomemetaphorsintheEnglishlanguage.Daviscouldevenpointoutthatmanyracistwordsarerelatedtocolorandvision.ThenotoriousnwordhasitsoriginsintheSpanishwordforblack.Iw川granttoothatthelanguagemayindeedbeinherentlyracist(andsexist).Itdoesseemthatthelanguagehasfarmorederogatorytermsforminoritygroupsandwomenthanforthemajoritygroupandmen.Modestyforbidsmefromwritingexampleshere,butasimple"thoughtexperimenfw川illustratemypoint:makeamentallistofallthewordsthataredeliberatelyinsultingtoblacks,orwomen,oranyotherminoritygroup.Makeasimilarlistofderogatorywordsaimedatwhitesormen.Ifindthatthelistsareunequallylong:therearefarmorederogatorywordsagainstanyminoritygroup.Tomymind,thatisstrongerevidencetosuggestthatthelanguagemayhaveaninherentbias.]Yetthefactofthematteristhatracistandsexistlanguagehasmoretodowithunequalpowerthanithastodowiththemeaningsassociatedwithwordslikewhiteandblack.Forexample,ifyouwanttofindoutwhosemannerofspeechisthemostadmiredandistheprestigedialectwithinacountry,simplyfindoutwhichsocialgrouphasthehighestprestigeinthatcountry.Thereisadirectcorrelationbetweensocialprestigeandlinguisticprestige.SowhenOssieDavislooksattheenormousnumberofunfavorablesynonymsassociatedwiththeworddarknessandconcludesthat“TheEnglishLanguageisMyEnemy!”IdonotexplainthatfactontheinherentracismthatDavisbelievespervadesourthoughts.Tome,thatexpla