DiscourseAnalysisCuebDiscourseAnalysis1:Introduction2:BasicissuesinDA3:Texture(Halliday’sTheory)4:Texture(Beaugrande&Dressler’sTheory)5:Cohesionandcoherence6:Thematicandinformationstructure7:TenseandAspect8:Discoursestructure9:Conversationanalysis10:Discourseandcontext11:DAinapplication1:Introduction--Ageneralunderstanding

When?Cameintobeingsince1950s;asanindependentdisciplinesince1970s.Whattostudy?Languageunitslargerthansentences,includingbothwrittenandspokenlanguage.1:Introduction—developmentofDA1.TextLinguisticsTextlinguistics(ordiscourselinguistics)developedonthebasisofsyntax(句法學(xué)).Soitisalsocalledtextgrammar(篇章語法)ordiscourseanalysis（語篇分析，話語分析）.

1:Introduction—developmentofDA2.Stages(1)ThePreparatoryStage(1950s):Harris

(2)TheDevelopmentalStage(orTheEmergenceofDiscourseAnalysisAsANewDiscipline)(1970s):Halliday(3)TheMaturedStage(1980s):G.Yule,T.Givon,S.Thompson,J.S.Petofi,W.Chafe,W.Mann,R.Longacre,etc.inAmerica;G.Brown,VanDijk,M.Coulthard,J.Sinclair,E.Ventola,etc.inwesternEurope;M.A.K.Halliday,R.Hasan,J.Martin,C,Matthiessen,etc.inAustalia;M.BakhtininRussia;廖秋忠,陳平,胡壯麟,沈家煊,顧曰國,任紹曾,申丹，黃國文,張德祿,朱永生等。1:Introduction—definition?1.TheCommon-SenseDefinitions2.TheTheoreticalDefinitions:formalist:discourseusaparticularunitoflanguage(abovethesentence)functionalist:discourseisdefinedasaparticularfocusonlanguageuse.1:Introduction—definition?Formalist：LanguageabovethesentenceFunctionalist:LanguageuseDiscourse:utterances1:Introduction—characteristicsdiscoursemustbegrammaticallycorrectandsemanticallycoherent.

discourseshouldhaveanargumentativestructureandlogicalstructure

itisgenerallyheldthattheboundaryofdiscourseanalysisshouldexceedthelimitofasimplesentence

HallidayandHasan(1976)proposethatdiscourseisasemanticunit,notaunitofform.

Introduction:Text&DiscourseDifferentdefinitionstotext/discourse:1.Halliday&Hasan(1976),Quirketal.(1985):textforbothwrittenandspokenlanguage2.Coulthard(1985):textforwritten,discourseforspoken3.Leechetal.(1985):discourseforboth4.Widdowson(1975):discourseforwritten1:Introduction—TheTaskofDAFromthemacro-perspective:Howdoeslanguageuseinfluencebeliefsandinteraction,orviceversa?Howdoaspectsofinteractioninfluencehowpeoplespeak?Howdobeliefscontrollanguageuseandinteraction？Whataretherelationshipsamonglanguageuse,beliefsandinteraction?1:Introduction—TheTaskofDAFromthemicro-perspective:(a)thesemanticlinksbetweensentences,(b)textualcohesionandcoherence,(c)conversationalprinciples,(d)therelationshipbetweendiscourseandcontext,(e)therelationshipbetweenthediscoursesemanticstructureandideology,(f)therelationshipbetweendiscourseandthinkingpatterns,etc.1:Introduction—

VarietiesofApproachesTowards

DAInsociology

InphilosophyIncognitivepsychology

Inliterature

Inlinguistics

Incriticallinguisticstudy

Incognitivelinguistics

2:BasicissuesinDA1.Cohesion2.Coherence3.Sentence,sentencegroupandtext4.Patternsofsententialrelationships5.Discoursestructure6.DAlevels2:BasicissuesinDACohesion:Aimportantfeatureoftexturerealizedatthesurfacestructureofatext.Toberealizedbyusinggrammaticaldevices(e.g.reference,substitutionandellipses,etc.)andlexicaldevices(e.g.reiterationandcollocation,etc.)Atangiblenetworkofthetext2:BasicissuesinDACoherence:Thesemanticrelationinatext;lyinginnotonthesurfacebutthedeeplevelofthetext;realizedbylogicalreasoning;anintangiblenetworkofthetext2:BasicissuesinDACohesion:A:Whoseisthispen?B:Oh,it’stheoneIlost.Coherence:A:That’sthetelephone.B:I’minthebath.A:O.K.2:BasicissuesinDASentence,sentencegroupandtextSentence:thelargestgrammaticalunitSG:composedby2ormoresentencesClause:??Clausecomplex2:BasicissuesinDASententialrelationships:Thestructuralandsemanticrelationsbetweensentencesinacoherenttext.Clausecomplexes:Asentencecanbeinterpretedasaclausecomplex:aHeadclausetogetherwithotherclausesthatmodifyit.Theclausecomplexwillbetheonlygrammaticalunitwhichweshallrecognizeabovetheclause.(Halliday,1994)2:BasicissuesinDABasictypesofclausecomplexes(i)paratactic(ii)hypotactic(1)Expansion(a)elaborationJohndidn’twait;1heranaway.=2Johnranaway,αwhichsurprisedeveryone=β(b)extensionJohnranaway,1andFredstayedbehind.+2Johnranaway,αwhereasFredstayedbehind.+β(c)enhancementJohnwasscared,1soheranaway.×2Johnranaway,αbecausehewasscared×β(2)Projection(a)locutionJohnsaid:1‘I’mrunningaway’“2Johnsaidαhewasrunningaway.“β(b)ideaJohnthoughttohimself:1‘I’llrunaway’‘2Johnthoughtαhewouldrunaway.‘β2:BasicissuesinDATwosystemicdimensions:1.Thesystemofinterdependency:parataxisandhypotaxis2.Thelogico-semanticsystem:expansionandprojection2:BasicissuesinDADiscoursestructure“Thisnoiseisgivingmeaheadache.”“Me,too!”*“It’sgoingtorainsoon.”“Me,too!”2:BasicissuesinDADiscoursestructure—linearization（線性表現(xiàn)）Icame.Isaw.Iconquered.(JuliusCaesar)Thepolicemanhelduphishand.Thecarstopped.2:BasicissuesinDADiscoursestructure—basicrelationalstructures（基本關(guān)系結(jié)構(gòu)）（Quirk,1985)1.generalandparticular:Workinginwoodcallsforgreatmanualskill.Theordinarysawitselfisnoteasytohandle.Theordinaryhouseholdsawisnoteasytouse.Infact,anysortofwoodworkcallsforgreatmanualskill.Manyoftheaudiencebecameopenlyhostile.Forexamplemyunclewrotealettertothemanagementnextday.2:BasicissuesinDA2.progression（遞進）（以時間先后、推理起結(jié)為序）WangChinggetsupathalfpastsix.Hedresses,washesandgoesouttodomorningexercises.Thenhehasbreakfast.HemustbeBob’sbrother.Irememberhe’sgotabigrednose.First,boilthericeinwell-saltedwater;drainitimmediately.Next,…2:BasicissuesinDALevelsofDA1.phonologicallevelSuprasegmentalfeatures:stress,duration,quantity,quality,pitch,juncture,transition,pause,intonation,rhythmAds/poems:alliteration,assonance,consonance,reverserhyme,pararhyme,rhymePhonologicaldeviation2:BasicissuesinDA2.graphologicallevelLayout,shape,presentation,arrangementofsentences,etc.3.lexical/semanticlevelWord-formation,wordcomplexity,wordstylisticfeatures,wordsemanticfeatures,etc.2:BasicissuesinDA4.syntacticlevelSentencetype,sentencecomplexity,sentencearrangementandthedistributionandgivenandnewinformation,etc.5.textuallevelTextstructureetc.6.leveloftextualorientationTherelationshipsamongthetime,placeandparticipantsofanarrativeeven,factuality,etc.3:Texture

Textureisalsocalledtextuality.Tobeatext,itmusthavetexture.Whatdoestexturemean?Howcanwedeterminewhetheratexthastextureornot?3:Texture

TheStudyofTextureHalliday’sTheoryHalliday(1976:2)said:“Atexthastexture(語篇特征)andthisiswhatdistinguishesitfromsomethingthatisnotatext…Thetextureisprovidedbythecohesiverelation.”Forexample:Washandcoresixcookingapples.Putthemintoafireproofdish.AccordingtoHalliday,thecohesiverelationsinclude:reference,substitution,ellipsisandlexicalrelationship.3:Texture

1.ReferenceReferenceisdividedintoendophoricreferenceandexophoricreference.Exphoricreferenceisalsocalledsituationalreference.Endophoricreferenceisalsocalledtextualreference.AccordingtoHalliday,onlyendophoricreferenceiscohesive.Exphoricreferencecontributestothecreationoftext,butitdoesnotcontributetothecohesionofthetext,becauseexphoricreferencelinksthelanguagewiththecontextofsituation.Endophoricreferenceincludesthreetypes:personal,demonstrative,andcomparative.3:Texture

PersonalReferencereferencemadebypersonalpronouns;including:I,me,my,mine,you,your,yours,he,him,his,she,her,hers,we,us,our,ours,they,them,their,theirs,etc.

LimerickTherewasayoungladyofNiger,Whosmiledassherodeonatiger.TheyreturnedfromtherideWiththeladyinsideAndthesmileonthefaceofthetiger.Heresheandtheyareanaphoric,‘pointing’respectivelytoayounglady,andayoungladyandatiger.Ananaphoricrelationshipofthiskindcreatescohesion.Presentedwiththesewords,thelistenerhastolookbackforitsinterpretation.Sothesewordshavetheeffectoflinkingthetwosentencesintoacohesiveunity.3:TextureDemonstrativeReferencereferencemadebythefollowingwordssuchasthe,this,that,these,those,here,there,etc.,whichexpressesthedegreeofproximity.E.g.Inotherwords,economicalwritingisefficientandaestheticallysatisfying.Whileitmakesamaximumdemandontheenergyandpatienceofreaders,itreturnstothemamaximumofsharplycompressedmeaning.Youshouldacceptthisasyourbasicresponsibilityasawriter:thatyouinflictnounnecessarywordsonyourreaders–justasadentistinflictsnounnecessarypain,alawyernounnecessaryrisk.Herethisiscataphoric,‘pointing’tothelatterpartofthesentence.3:TextureComparativeReferencereferencemadebythefollowingwordssuchassame,different,identical,similar,equal,equally,more,less,better,etc.,whichexpressesIDENTITYorSIMILARITY.

AReasonableAfflictionMattewPriorOnhisdeath-bedpoorLubinlies;Hisspouseisindespair;Withfrequentsobsandmutualcries;Theybothexpresstheircare.“Adifferentcause,”saysParsonSly,“Thesameeffectmaygive:PoorLubinfearsthathemaydie;Hiswife,thathemaylive”.Heredifferentiscataphoric,‘pointing’forward,andsameisanaphoric,‘pointing’towhathasbeensaidinthefirstpartofthispoem.3:Texture2.EllipsisEllipsismeanssomethingleftunsaid.Therearethreetypesofellipsis:nominalellipsis,verbalellipsisandclausalellipsis.3:TextureNominalEllipsisEllipsiswithinthenominalgroup.ThenominalgroupiscomposedofaHeadwiththeotherelements:Deictic,Numerative,Epithet,Classifier,andQualifier.TheDeicticisnormallyadeterminersuchasthose,these,etc.,

theNumerativeanumeralorotherquantifiersuchastwo,four,etc.,theEpithetanadjectivesuchasfast,etc.,theClassifieranounoranadjectivesuchastrainintrainset,electric,etc.ThefunctionoftheHead,whichisalwaysfilled,isnormallyservedbythecommonnoun,propernounorpronounexpressingthething.Undercertaincircumstances,thecommonnounmaybeomittedandthefunctionoftheHeadistakenonbyoneoftheseotherelements.E.g.a.Herearemytwowhitesilkscarves.b.Whereareyours?Asforbyours(Deictic)isHead,andthepresupposedelementsincludenotonlyscarves(Thing)butalsosilk(Classifier),white(Epithet)andpossiblytwo(Numerative).3:TextureVerbalEllipsisEllipsiswithintheverbalgroup.Forexample:a.Haveyoubeenplayingfootball?–Yes,Ihave.b.Whathaveyoubeendoing?–Playingfootball.Thetwoverbalgroupsintheanswers,havein(a)andplayingin(b)arebothinstancesofverbalellipsis.3:TextureClausalEllipsisClausalellipsisisrelatedtothequestion-answerprocessindialogue,whichdeterminesthattherearetwokindsofellipsis:yes/noellipsis,andWH-ellipsis.3:TextureYes/NoEllipsisFirst,inayes/noquestion-answersequence,theanswermayinvolvetheellipsisofthewholeclause.Forexample:SpurgeonMorefunnystoriesaretoldofSpurgeonthanperhapsanygreatpreacher.Hereisagoodone.Hewascalledtothetelephonebyafriendwhosaid:“Haveyoureadthismorning’spaper?”“Yes.(Ihave)”“DidyouseeinitanoticethatIwasdead?”“Yes.(Idid)”“Whatdoyouthinkofit?”“Don’tknow,”repliedSpurgeon.“WhatIwanttoknowiswhereyouarespeakingfrom?”Second,inayes/noquestion-answersequence,theremaybeellipsisofjustonepartofit,theResidue.Forexample:-Mustwehandinourpaperattheendofthisterm?-Ofcourseyoumust(handinyourpaperattheendofthisterm).3:TextureWH-ellipsisFirst,inaWH-sequence,theentireclauseisusuallyomittedexceptfortheWH-elementitself,ortheitemthatistheresponsetotheWH-element:-“Whatdidyouthinkofthebird,Mother?”heaskedeagerly.-“Delicious!”,hismothersaid.

Second,sometimesinaWH-clause,oritsresponse,theMoodelementisleftinandonlytheResidueisomitted.Forexample:WithWH-Subject-Who’reatworknow.-Iam(atworknow).3:Texture3SubstitutionSubstitutionmeansthereplacementofoneitembyanother.Therearethreetypesofsubstitution:nominal,verbalandclausal.3:TextureNominalSubstitutionTheitemsthatoccurassubstitutesareone,ones,thesame.Forexample:-Averyniceoldladyhadafewwordstosaytohergranddaughter.“Mydear,”saidtheoldlady,‘Iwishyouwoulddosomethingforme.Iwishyouwouldpromisemenevertousetwowords.Oneis‘lousy’andtheotheris‘swell’.Wouldyoupromisemethat?”-TheclimateinNorthernChinaisnotthesameasthatinSouthernChina.3:TextureVerbalSubstitutionTheverbalsubstituteinEnglishisdo,withtheusualmorphologicalvariantformsdo,does,did,doing,done.Forexample:Shecansingaswellashedoes.(does=sings)-Doyouplayviolineveryday?-Yes,Ido.(do=playviolin)ThesubstitutedoisoftenusedwithsotosubstitutethePredicator,theObjectorthePredicatorandAdjunct.HecansingmanyItaliansongs,butIcan’tdoso.(doso=singmanyItaliansongs)3:TextureClausalSubstitutionWhatispresupposedisnotanelementwiththeclausebutanentireclause.Thewordsusedassubstitutesaresoandnot.Substitutionofthe(Reported)Clause-Willtheyarriveontime?-Ihopeso.(=Ihopetheywillarriveontime)SubstitutionofConditionalClauseConditionalclausesarefrequentlysubstitutedbysoandnot,especiallyfollowingifbutalsoinotherformssuchasassumingso,supposenot.Forexample:Everyoneseemstosupporthim.Ifso(=ifeveryonesupportshim),hewilletheprincipalofourschool.SubstitutionofModalizedClausesSoandnotcancombinewithsomemodaladverbs(e.g.perhaps,certainly,probably)andoccurassubstitutesforclausesexpressingmodality.Forexample:(25)–Havetheymarried?-Perhapsnot.(=Perhapstheyhaven’tmarried.)3:Texture4ConjunctionConjunctionmeansthataclauseorclausecomplex,orsomelongerstretchoftext,mayberelatedtowhatfollowsitbyoneorotherofaspecificsetofsemanticrelations(orthedevicesofvariouslogicalrelation).Therearefourtypesofconjunction:additive,adversative,causal,andtemporal.3:TextureItookabath,dined,andthendozedfitfullyforawhile.(additive)Law-and–orderisthelongest-runningandprobablythebest-lovedpoliticalissueinU.S.history.YetitispainfullyapparentthatmillionsofAmericanswhowouldneverthinkofthemselvesaslaw-breakers,letalonecriminals.(adversative)Red-lightrunninghasalwaysbeenrankedasaminorwrong,andsoitmaybeinindividualinstances.(Causal)Soonafterwardsthecloudsankdowntoearthandcoveredthesea;ithadalreadyblottedoutCapriandhiddenthepromontoryofMisenumfromsight.Thenmymotherimplored,entreated,andcommandedmetoescapeasbestasIcould–ayoungmanmightescape,whereasshewasoldandslowandcoulddieinpeaceaslongasshehadnotbeenthecauseofmydeathtoo.(temporal)Thewordsand,yet,soandthencanbetakenastypifyingthesefourgeneralconjunctiverelations.Actuallyalotofwordscanbefoundwithinthesefourgeneralcategoriesofconjunction.3:Texture5.LexicalCohesionLexicalcohesionreferstotheselectionofitemsthatarerelatedinsomewaytothosethathavegonebefore.Itincludesthefollowingdevicessuchasrepetition,synonymy&antonymy,collocation,etc.3:TextureRepetitionRepetitionisthemostdirectformoflexicalcohesion.Itmeansthechoiceofthelexicalitemthatisinsomesensesimilartotheprecedingone.Forexample:Theyoungmandoesnotlikebears,soyesterdayintheparkhegavethebearsomepoisonousfoodtoeat.Inaddition,therepeatedlexicalitemneednotbeinthesamemorphologicalshape.Forexample,dine,dining,diner,dinnerareallthesameitem,andanoccurrenceofanyoneconstitutesarepetition.Lookatanotherexample:ABarkingWifeAmanwhohadbeenmarriedfortenyearswasconsultingamarriagecounselor.“WhenIwasfirstmarried,Iwasveryhappy.I’dcomehomefromaharddaydownattheshop,andmylittledogwouldracearoundbarking,andmywifewouldbringmemyslippers.Noweverything’schanged.WhenIcomehome,mydogbringsmemyslippers,andmywifebarksatme.”“Idon’tknowwhatyou’recomplainingabout,”saidthecounselor.“You’restillgettingthesameservice.”Inthispassage,therearethreechainsoflexicalcohesion:marriedandmarriage,barkingandbarks,bringandbrings,whichsuggestthatmarry-married-marriage,bark-barks-barking,bring-bringsarerespectivelyoneandthesamelexicalitem.3:TextureSynonymyandAntonymySynonymyLexicalcohesioncanresultfromthechoiceofalexicalitemthatisinsomesensesynonymouswithaprecedingone;forexamplejokeandstory,smiledandlaughedinthefollowingpassage.TheJokeSirWilliamThompsonwasverydeafbuthedidnotlikepeopletoknowthis.Oneeveninghehadinvitedseveralfriendstodinner,andwhiletheyweresittingatthetable,oneofthefriendstoldafunnystory.Everyonelaughed,andSirWilliam,whohadlaughedasloudaseveryone,said,“Thatwasaveryfunnyjoke,butIknowafunnierone.Wouldyouliketohearit?”Theyallsaidtheywould,soSirWilliambeganhisstory.Whenitended,everyonelaughedlouderthaneverandSirWilliamsmiledhappily.Buthedidn’tknowthereasonfortheirlaughter.Hehadtoldtheverysamestorythathisfriendhadjusttold.3:TextureWhatiscloselyrelatedwithsynonymyishyponym(下義詞),whosemeaningisincludedintothecategoryofsuperordinate(上坐標詞).Onesuperordinate(e.g.flower)oftensubsumesseveral‘co-hyponyms’:Flower

rosedaffodildaisydandelionsnowdrop…Thesuperordinateexpressesgeneralandabstractmeaningwhilethehyponymthespecificandconcretemeaning.3:TextureAnothersemanticrelationshipismeronym(局部詞),whichseemstobecongruentwithhyponym,butinfacttherelationshipbetweenmeronymandsuperordinateisakindofpart-wholeratherthanspecific-general.Forexample: Tree

roottrunkbranchleaf…Ascanbeseen,root,trunk,branch,leaf,etc.areagroupofco-meronyms.3:TextureCohesioncanalsoariseoutofthehyponymyandthemeronym.Forinstance:Ravenousfishandtastyplankton.Rainforestsdrippingwithnamelessreptiles,birdsglidingundercanopiesofleaves,insectsbuzzinglikeelectronsinanaccelerator.Frostbeltswherevolesandlemmingsflourishanddiminishwithtidyfour-yearperiodicityinthefaceofnature’sbloodycombat.Theworldmakesamessylaboratoryforecologists,acauldronoffivemillioninterestingspecies.Orisitfiftymillion?Ecologistsdonotactuallyknow.In(40),‘species’isthesuperordinate,‘fish,plankton,reptiles,birds,insects,volesandlemmings’arethehyponymsof‘species’.Theexistenceoftherelationship------superordinatevs.co-hyponyms,notonlymakesthetextacoherentunitybutalsogivestheaddresseesareal-lifefeeling.3:TextureAntonymyLexicalitemswhichareoppositeinmeaning,namelyantonyms,alsofunctionwithcohesiveeffectinatext.Forexample:Toerrishuman;toforgivedivineCheersforthelivingandtearsthedead.3:TextureCollocationCollocationreferstothe‘co-occurrencetendency’,namelysomelexicalitemsregularlytendtoco-occur.Collocationcanhelptoachievecohesiveeffectinatext.Forexample:Andsingsasolitarysong,Thatwhistlesinthewind.Thereisastrongcollocationbondbetweensingandsong,songandwhistles,whichmakethetwolinescohesive.3:TextureIntheabovewetalkedaboutHalliday’scohesivetheory.AccordingtoHalliday,textureisprovidedbycohesiverelations.Thatistosay,ifthesecohesivedevicescanensureastretchofutterancecohesive,thenitisoftextureortextuality,anditisatext.Otherwiseitisanon-text.3:TextureButBrownandYule(1983)rasiedtwoquestions:First,issuchcohesionnecessarytotheidentificationofatext?Secondly,issuchcohesionsufficienttoguaranteeidentificationasatext?Forexample:A.There’sthedoorbell.B.I’minthebath.Here,thereisnoexplicitmarkingoftherelationshipbetweenthefirstandsecondsentences.Nevertheless,anormalreaderwillnaturallyassumethatthesesequencesconstituteatextandwillinterpretthesecondsentenceinthelightofthefirstsentence.Thisexampletendstoshowusthatcohesiverelationshipisnotnecessarytotheidentificationofatext.3:TextureIboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElyseeswasblack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionsbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.4:

TextureRobert-AlaindeBeaugrande&WolfgangU.Dressler’sTheoryBeaugrande&Dressler(1983：3):Atextwillbedefinedascommunicativeoccurrencewhichmeetssevenstandardsoftextuality.Theyare:cohesion,coherence,intentionality,acceptability,informativity,situationalityandintertextuality.Ifanyofthesestandardsisnotconsideredtohavebeensatisfied,thetextwillnotbecommunicative.Hence,municativetextsaretreatedasnon-texts.4:

TextureThefirststandardiscohesion,whichmeans“stickingtogether”,andconcernsthewaysinwhichthecomponentsofthesurfacetext,i.e.theactualwordswehearandsee,aremutuallyconnectedwithinasequence.Thesurfacecomponentsdependuponeachotheraccordingtogrammaticalformsandconventions.Inthisway,cohesionrestsuponGrammaticalDependencies.Byusingtheterm,thetwoauthorsintendtoemphasizethefunctionofsyntaxincommunication.Butsometimeswecanfindthatthesurfaceisnotdecisivebyitself.Forexample:SlowChildrenAtPlaySoinordertomakecommunicationefficient,theremustbeinteractionbetweencohesionandtheotherstandardsoftextuality.4:

TextureThesecondstandardiscoherenceandconcernsthewaysinwhichthecomponentsofthetextualworld,i.e.theconfigurationofconceptsandrelationswhichunderliethesurfacetext,aremutuallyaccessibleandrelevant.4:

TextureAconceptisdefinedasaconfigurationofknowledge(cognitivecontent)whichcanberecoveredoractivatedwithmoreorlessunityandconsistencyinthemind.(大腦中能夠回想或激活的多少具有同一性與一致性的知識（認知內(nèi)容）構(gòu)型)。Forexample:in‘Childrenatplay’,‘children’isanobjectconceptand‘play’anactionconcept,andtherelation“agent-of”obtains,becausethechildrenaretheagentsoftheaction.4:

Texture

Relationsarethelinksbetweenconceptswhichappeartogetherinatextualworld.（關(guān)系則是“一個語篇世界中同時出現(xiàn)的”概念之間的聯(lián)系。Coherencecanbeillustratedbyagroupofrelationssubsumedundercausality.(semanticrelations:cause,enablement,reasonandpurpose).4:

TextureCause:Heworkedsohardthatheforgotthemealtime.Here,theeventof‘workingsohard’isthecauseoftheeventof‘forgetting’,becauseitcreatedthenecessaryconditionsforthelatter.Enablement:Onedaywhenthefoxwasoutlookingforfood,theeagle,whowasveryshortoffoodtoo,swoopeddowntothebushesandtookthefoxcubsuptohernestandfeastedonthemwithherownyoung.Here,thefox’sactioncreatedthesufficient,butnotnecessaryconditionsfortheeagle’saction(madeitpossible,butnotobligatory).Reason:itisusedfortherelationwhereanactionfollowsarationalresponsetosomepreviousevent.Forexample:Hewillhaveagoodwifebecauseheearnsalargeamountofmoney.Havingagoodwifeisnotactuallycausedorenabledbyhisearningalargeamountofmoney,butisareasonableandpredictableeofearningalargeamountofmoney.Purpose:Thistermisusedforaneventorsituationwhichisplannedtoepossibleviaapreviouseventorsituation.Forexample:Thegoatadvisedthedonkeytohaveepilepsyandtofallintoaholeinordertogetsomerest.4:

TextureCoherenceisclearlynotamerefeatureoftexts,butrathertheeofcognitiveprocessesamongtextusers.Theauthorssaid(1981:94):“CoherencewillbeenvisionedastheeofcombiningconceptsandrelationsintoanetworkcomposedofKNOWLEDGESPACEScentredaroundmainTOPICS.”4:

TextureThethirdstandardisintentionality,whichconcernsthetextproducer’sattitudethatasetofoccurrencesshouldconstituteacohesiveandcoherenttextinstrumentalinfulfillingtheproducer’sintention.Thatistosay,textproducersusetextstopursueandfulfiltheirintentions.ThisistrueinSearle’stheory.Searle,basedonAustin,developedthenotionof“speechacts”.Hedistinguishes:(a)utteranceacts,(2)propositionalacts,(3)illocutionaryacts,(4)perlocutionaryacts.Beaugrande&Dresslerclaimedthatinhandlingdiscourse,textproducersandreceiversrelyuponGrice’sCooperativePrinciple(conversationalimplicature).Butthisisstillunclear.Itcannotexplainthediscoursegoals.Theyproposedthatamorepromisingviewistoviewtheproductionandreceptionoftexts(orsentences)asprobabilisticoperation4:

TextureCooperativePrinciple(Grice1975)Quantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Quality:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythat