ComponentsofABuildingandTallBuildingsMaterialsandstructuralformsarecombinedtomakeupthevariouspartsofabuilding,includingtheload-carryingframe,skin,floors,andpartitions.Thebuildingalsohasmechanicalandelectricalsystems,suchaselevators,heatingandcoolingsystems,andlightingsystems.Thesuperstructureisthatpartofabuildingaboveground,andthesubstructureandfoundationisthatpartofabuildingbelowground.Theskyscraperowesitsexistencetotwodevelopmentsofthe19thcentury:steelskeletonconstructionandthepassengerelevator.SteelasaconstructionmaterialdatesfromtheintroductionoftheBessemerconverterin1885.GustaveEiffel(1832-1932)introducedsteelconstructioninFrance.HisdesignsfortheGaleriedesMachinesandtheTowerfortheParisExpositionof1889expressedthelightnessofthesteelframework.TheEiffelTower,984feet(300meters)high,wasthetalleststructurebuiltbymanandwasnotsurpasseduntil40yearslaterbyaseriesofAmericanskyscrapers.ThefirstelevatorwasinstalledbyElishaOtisinstalledthefirstelevatorinadepartmentstoreinNewYorkin1857.In1889;EiffelinstalledthefirstelevatorsonagrandscaleintheEiffelTower,whosehydraulicelevatorscouldtransport2,350passengerstothesummiteveryhour.Load-CarryingFrame.Untilthelate19thcentury,theexteriorwallsofabuildingwereusedasbearingwallstosupportthefloors.Thisconstructionisessentiallyapostandlinteltype,anditisstillusedinframeconstructionforhouses.Bearing-wallconstructionlimitedtheheightofbuildingsbecauseoftheenormouswallthicknessrequired；Forinstance,the16-storyMonadnockBuildingbuiltinthe1880’sinChicagohadwalls5feet(1.5meters)thickatthelowerfloors.In1883,WilliamLeBaronJenney(1832-1907)supportedfloorsoncast-ironcolumnstoformacage-likeconstruction.Skeletonconstruction,consistingofsteelbeamsandcolumns,wasfirstusedin1889.Asaconsequenceofskeletonconstruction,theenclosingwallsbecomea“curtainwall”ratherthanservingasupportingfunction.Masonrywasthecurtainwallmaterialuntilthe1930’s,whenlightmetalandglasscurtainwallswereused.Aftertheintroductionofbuildingscontinuedtoincreaserapidly.AlltallbuildingswerebuiltwithaskeletonofsteeluntilWorldWarⅡ.Afterthewar,theshortageofsteelandtheimprovedqualityofconcreteledtotallbuildingbeingbuiltofreinforcedconcrete.MarinaTower(1962)inChicagoisthetallestconcretebuildingintheUnitedStates；Itsheight—588feet(179meters)—isexceededbythe650-foot(198-meter)PostOfficeTowerinLondonandbyothertowers.Achangeinattitudeaboutskyscraperconstructionhasbroughtareturntotheuseofthebearingwall.InNewYorkCity,theColumbiaBroadcastingSystemBuilding,designedbyEeroSaarinenin1962,hasaperimeterwallconsistingof5-foot(1.5meter)wideconcretecolumnsspaced10feet(3meters)fromcolumncentertocenter.Thisperimeterwall,ineffect,constitutesabearingwall.Onereasonforthistrendisthatstiffnessagainsttheactionofwindcanbeeconomicallyobtainedbyusingthewallsofthebuildingasatube；theWorldTradeCenterbuildingisanotherexampleofthistubeapproach.Incontrast,rigidframesorverticaltrussesareusuallyprovidedtogivelateralstability.Skin.Theskinofabuildingconsistsofbothtransparentelements(windows)andopaqueelements(walls).Windowsaretraditionallyglass,althoughplasticsarebeingused,especiallyinschoolswherebreakagecreatesamaintenanceproblem.Thewallelements,whichareusedtocoverthestructureandaresupportedbyit,arebuiltofavarietyofmaterials:brick,precastconcrete,stone,opaqueglass,plastics,steel,andaluminum.Woodisusedmainlyinhouseconstruction；Itisnotgenerallyusedforcommercial,industrial,orpublicbuildingbecauseofthefirehazard.Floors.Theconstructionofthefloorsinabuildingdependsonthebasicstructuralframethatisused.Insteelskeletonconstruction,floorsareeitherslabsofconcreterestingonsteelbeamsoradeckconsistingofcorrugatedsteelwithaconcretetopping.Inconcreteconstruction,thefloorsareeitherslabsofconcreteonconcretebeamsoraseriesofcloselyspacedconcretebeams(ribs)intwodirectionstoppedwithathinconcreteslab,givingtheappearanceofawaffleonitsunderside.Thekindoffloorthatisuseddependsonthespanbetweensupportingcolumnsorwallsandthefunctionofthespace.Inanapartmentbuilding,forinstance,wherewallsandcolumnsarespacedat12to18feet(3.7to5.5meters),themostpopularconstructionisasolidconcreteslabwithnobeams.Theundersideoftheslabservesastheceilingforthespacebelowit.Corrugatedsteeldecksareoftenusedinofficebuildingsbecausethecorrugations,whenenclosedbyanothersheetofmetal,formductsfortelephoneandelectricallines.MechanicalandElectricalSystems.Amodernbuildingnotonlycontainsthespaceforwhichitisintended(office,classroom,apartment)butalsocontainsancillaryspaceformechanicalandelectricalsystemsthathelptoprovideacomfortableenvironment.Theseancillaryspacesinaskyscraperofficebuildingmayconstitute25%ofthetotalbuildingarea.Theimportanceofheating,ventilating,electrical,andplumbingsystemsinanofficebuildingisshownbythefactthat40%oftheconstructionbudgetisallocatedtothem.Becauseoftheincreaseduseofsealedbuildingwithwindowsthatcannotbeopened,elaboratemechanicalsystemsareprovidedforventilationandairconditioning.Ductsandpipescarryfreshairfromcentralfanroomsandairconditioningmachinery.Theceiling,whichissuspendedbelowtheupperfloorconstruction,concealstheductworkandcontainsthelightingunits.Electricalwiringforpowerandfortelephonecommunicationmayalsobelocatedinthisceilingspaceormaybeburiedinthefloorconstructioninpipesorconduits.Therehavebeenattemptstoincorporatethemechanicalandelectricalsystemsintothearchitectureofbuildingbyfranklyexpressingthem；Forexample,theAmericanRepublicInsuranceCompanyBuilding(1965)inDesMoines,Iowa,exposesboththeductsandthefloorstructureinanorganizedandelegantpatternanddispenseswiththesuspendedceiling.Thistypeofapproachmakesitpossibletoreducethecostofthebuildingandpermitsinnovations,suchasinthespanofthestructure.SoilsandFoundations.Allbuildingaresupportedontheground,andthereforethenatureofthesoilbecomesanextremelyimportantconsiderationinthedesignofanybuilding.Thedesignofafoundationdependsonmanysoilfactors,suchastypeofsoil,soilstratification,thicknessofsoillaversandtheircompaction,andgroundwaterconditions.Soilsrarelyhaveasinglecomposition；Theygenerallyaremixturesinlayersofvaryingthickness.Forevaluation,soilsaregradedaccordingtoparticlesize,whichincreasesfromsilttoclaytosandtograveltorock.Ingeneral,thelargerparticlesoilswillsupportheavierloadsthanthesmallerones.Thehardestrockcansupportloadsupto100tonspersquarefoot(976.5metrictons/sqmeter),butthesoftestsiltcansupportaloadofonly0.25tonpersquarefoot(2.44metrictons/sqmeter).Allsoilsbeneaththesurfaceareinastateofcompaction；thatis,theyareunderapressurethatisequaltotheweightofthesoilcolumnaboveit.Manysoils(exceptformostsandsandgavels)exhibitelasticproperties—theydeformwhencompressedunderloadandreboundwhentheloadisremoved.Theelasticityofsoilsisoftentime-dependent,thatis,deformationsofthesoiloccuroveralengthoftimewhichmayvaryfromminutestoyearsafteraloadisimposed.Overaperiodoftime,abuildingmaysettleifitimposesaloadonthesoilgreaterthanthenaturalcompactionweightofthesoil.Conversely,abuildingmayheaveifitimposesloadsonthesoilsmallerthanthenaturalcompactionweight.Thesoilmayalsoflowundertheweightofabuilding；Thatis,ittendstobesqueezedout.Duetoboththecompactionandfloweffects,buildingstendsettle.Unevensettlements,exemplifiedbytheleaningtowersinPisaandBologna,canhavedamagingeffects—thebuildingmaylean,wallsandpartitionsmaycrack,windowsanddoorsmaybecomeinoperative,and,intheextreme,abuildingmaycollapse.Uniformsettlementsarenotsoserious,althoughextremeconditions,suchasthoseinMexicoCity,canhaveseriousconsequences.Overthepast100years,achangeinthegroundwaterleveltherehascausedsomebuildingstosettlemorethan10feet(3meters).Becausesuchmovementscanoccurduringandafterconstruction,carefulanalysisofthebehaviorofsoilsunderabuildingisvital.Thegreatvariabilityofsoilshasledtoavarietyofsolutionstothefoundationproblem.Wherefirmsoilexistsclosetothesurface,thesimplestsolutionistorestcolumnsonasmallslabofconcrete(spreadfooting).Wherethesoilissofter,itisnecessarytospreadthecolumnloadoveragreaterarea；inthiscase,acontinuousslabofconcrete(raftormat)underthewholebuildingisused.Incaseswherethesoilnearthesurfaceisunabletosupporttheweightofthebuilding,pilesofwood,steel,orconcretearedrivendowntofirmsoil.Theconstructionofabuildingproceedsnaturallyfromthefoundationuptothesuperstructure.Thedesignprocess,however,proceedsfromtheroofdowntothefoundation(inthedirectionofgravity).Inthepast,thefoundationwasnotsubjecttosystematicinvestigation.Ascientificapproachtothedesignoffoundationshasbeendevelopedinthe20thcentury.KarlTerzaghioftheUnitedStatespioneeredstudiesthatmadeitpossibletomakeaccuratepredictionsofthebehavioroffoundations,usingthescienceofsoilmechanicscoupledwithexplorationandtestingprocedures.Foundationfailuresofthepast,suchastheclassicalexampleoftheleaningtowerinPisa,havebecomealmostnonexistent.Foundationsstillareahiddenbutcostlypartofmanybuildings.Althoughtherehavebeenmanyadvancementsinbuildingconstructiontechnologyingeneral,spectacularachievementshavebeenmadeinthedesignandconstructionofultrahigh-risebuildings.Theearlydevelopmentofhigh-risebuildingsbeganwithstructuralsteelframing.Reinforcedconcreteandstressed-skintubesystemshavesincebeeneconomicallyandcompetitivelyusedinanumberofstructuresforbothresidentialandcommercialpurposes.Thehigh-risebuildingsrangingfrom50to110storiesthatarebeingbuiltallovertheUnitedStatesaretheresultofinnovationsanddevelopmentofnewstructuralsystems.Greaterheightentailsincreasedcolumnandbeamsizestomakebuildingsmorerigidsothatunderwindloadtheywillnotswaybeyondanacceptablelimit.Excessivelateralswaymaycauseseriousrecurringdamagetopartitions,ceilings,andotherarchitecturaldetails.Inaddition,excessiveswaymaycausediscomforttotheoccupantsofthebuildingbecauseoftheirperceptionofsuchmotion.Structuralsystemsofreinforcedconcrete,aswellassteel,takefulladvantageoftheinherentpotentialstiffnessofthetotalbuildingandthereforedonotrequireadditionalstiffeningtolimitthesway.Inasteelstructure,forexample,theeconomycanbedefinedintermsofthetotalaveragequantityofsteelpersquarefootoffloorareaofthebuilding.Thegapbetweentheupperboundaryandthelowerboundaryrepresentsthepremiumforalllateralloads.Thegapbetweentheupperboundaryandthelowerboundaryreprese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ncret罰eand貧steel凍havea算lsobe供endev海eloped乎,ane停xample撓ofwh臉ichis黃thec掘omposi燕tesys認(rèn)temde臟velope撓dbyS炎kidmor漲e,Owi周ngs&業(yè)Merril融linw爭(zhēng)hicha規(guī)nexte紀(jì)riorc玩losely破space討dfram供edtub粱einc甜oncret三eenve惰lopsa洋ninte膽riors門(mén)teelf閉raming遷,ther剪ebyco紋mbinin誕gthe政advant丟ageso賣(mài)fboth麻reinf權(quán)orced逝concre剛teand姜struc辱tural梅steel憂system裹s.The域52-st飽oryOn吳eShel促lSqua頑reBui駛lding被inNew推Orlea丙nsis洽based照onthi椒ssyst柿em街.舞出處：《土木伶工程專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)驕》話，段兵廷主編搶?zhuān)錆h理工大掌學(xué)出版社全建筑物的組成宜及高層結(jié)構(gòu)膀材料和不同的服結(jié)構(gòu)形式構(gòu)成投建筑物各種不榮同部分，包括況承重框架、外充殼、樓板和隔角墻。在建筑物卵內(nèi)部還有機(jī)械吃和電氣系統(tǒng)，緩例如電梯、供恒暖和冷卻系統(tǒng)蝴、照明系統(tǒng)等險(xiǎn)。地面以上的籠部分是建筑物構(gòu)的上部結(jié)構(gòu)，浪地面以下部分匹為建筑物的基嶺礎(chǔ)和下部結(jié)構(gòu)閉。墾摩天大樓的出旁現(xiàn)應(yīng)歸功霸于德1受9居世紀(jì)的兩大發(fā)芝展：鋼骨架結(jié)押構(gòu)和載人電梯至。鋼材作為一撲種建筑材料，獅是疑從炭185光5趟年貝西默煉鋼貴法被首次介紹炭后開(kāi)始應(yīng)用的爆。古斯暖塔臥?顏艾菲爾察（租1832~1陳92燙3梳）首次將鋼結(jié)川構(gòu)引入法國(guó)階。總188渣9駱年的巴黎國(guó)際逗博覽會(huì)第的塔和他為息Galeri猛edes恰機(jī)械的設(shè)計(jì)表?xiàng)l現(xiàn)了鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的紛靈活性。堪艾菲爾鐵塔限高泳30疾0澤米，是當(dāng)時(shí)人煩類(lèi)建造的最高童建筑物，直腳到神4墳0醫(yī)年后才由美國(guó)蘿的摩天大樓超遮過(guò)其高度。殊第一部電梯是喊1857就年喜Elisha姨O(píng)tis古給紐約的一家陵百貨公司所安是裝的。水188差9世年，艾菲爾在瑞艾菲爾鐵塔上技安裝了第一部氣大型電梯，它仰每小時(shí)可以運(yùn)包送垂235喝0待位乘客到達(dá)塔曾頂。泡承重框架狼。輩直池到勁1幟9假世紀(jì)后期，建梢筑物的外墻被眨用做承重墻來(lái)朋支撐樓層，這裝種結(jié)構(gòu)是本質(zhì)司上是一種梁柱辱模型，它還被德用在框架結(jié)構(gòu)堤房屋中。因?yàn)閸{所需墻體的厚句度很大，承重雞墻結(jié)構(gòu)限制了演建筑物的高度詠；例如，建籃于屠1叔9扛世拴紀(jì)練8愿0立年代的芝加勇哥盛1償6丸層高的駱Monadn天ockB面uildin儀g僚，須在較低的樓層流墻體厚度已達(dá)探到響1.擋5此米咱。杏1883津年，旦Willia功nLeB孝aronJ依enney恒（般1832~1額90暴7泡）愚用鑄鐵柱來(lái)支盤(pán)撐樓層的方式做以形成籠狀結(jié)菊構(gòu)。篇在欠188歡9達(dá)年，框架結(jié)構(gòu)稱(chēng)首次由鋼梁和霧鋼柱構(gòu)成。由丑于骨架結(jié)構(gòu)，烤圍墻變成了一談種巨“穗幕蒸墻槳”遮。磚石一直嫁是武“念幕脂墻厲”慌的主要材料，匠直飾到慰2附0械世紐紀(jì)索3節(jié)0戒年代輕金屬和萄玻璃幕墻的問(wèn)復(fù)世為止。自從舊鋼框架首次推廈出，建筑物的軌高度一直在迅索速增加。襪在第二次世界何大戰(zhàn)前，所有鄭的高層建筑都激是鋼結(jié)構(gòu)。戰(zhàn)懂爭(zhēng)結(jié)束以后，唇鋼材的缺乏和轉(zhuǎn)混凝土質(zhì)量的偶改進(jìn)，促進(jìn)了取鋼筋混凝土高秀層建筑的發(fā)展圾。芝加哥的賀Marina金Tower榆s芬（苗196污2茶）是美駐國(guó)最高的混凝皇土建筑；抵它的高度擋是沿58頃8慚英尺扣即輕17膚9西米，不久以后奴被倫敦的高叢達(dá)燭65吸0糾英尺懲即愉19嫁8蝶米的郵政大廈飾和其它的塔所肢超越。衰在關(guān)于摩天大畢樓構(gòu)造觀點(diǎn)的東改變恢復(fù)了承啞重墻的使用。奏在紐約，秒由接EeroS屑aarine葛n帆于撞196超2朱年設(shè)計(jì)的哥倫跟比亞廣播公司午大樓，性由棍1.愧5送米寬，柱與柱烈的中心間距竟為蝶3乘米的混凝土柱撿組成的環(huán)形墻搜。這種圍護(hù)墻譜有效地構(gòu)成了瞞建筑物的承重纏墻。這種趨勢(shì)紗發(fā)展的原因是斬建筑物的墻作蔥為一個(gè)筒體可黎以非常經(jīng)濟(jì)的筆獲得抗風(fēng)作用鴨的足夠強(qiáng)度；蒼世貿(mào)大樓是另生一個(gè)筒體法的利例子。相比之甜下，剛性框架子或者垂直的桁蜜架通常用于提傲供側(cè)向穩(wěn)定性酒。威外殼護(hù)。一個(gè)建筑的癥外殼由透明元捏素（窗戶(hù)）和胳不透明元素（亡墻）組成。窗嫂戶(hù)采用傳統(tǒng)上挖的玻璃作為材些料，盡管塑料風(fēng)正在被使用，謝特別在學(xué)校，疑破損產(chǎn)生了一齊個(gè)維護(hù)問(wèn)題。宗用來(lái)覆蓋結(jié)構(gòu)護(hù)和起支撐作用模墻，它是由各累種的建筑材料燒組成：磚、預(yù)裝制構(gòu)件、石頭撫、不透明的玻不璃、塑料、鋼癥材和鋁材。木挎頭是過(guò)去建造泥房屋的主要材懶料；因?yàn)樗缀缰?，因而不自常用于商業(yè)的譜、工業(yè)的和公棋共建筑。吩樓板念。一幢建筑的頸樓地面結(jié)構(gòu)取鑼決于它所使用俊的基本結(jié)構(gòu)框芝架。在鋼框架醬建筑中，樓地完面或者是鋼梁拍上的混凝土樓遼板，或者是由茫波紋鋼配有混竄凝土骨料組成芝的凹板。在混街凝土結(jié)構(gòu)中，為樓板或者是混捎凝土梁上的混稿凝土樓板或者脹是一系列緊密慶分布于混凝土招梁在方向上端聚的薄混凝土樓帝板，在它的下壯面提供了一個(gè)抓多余的空寂間攪。這種類(lèi)型的沸板取決于支撐緩柱之間的距離豈或者墻間的跨叢度和空間的功枝能性。在一棟間公寓大樓中，代例如，墻和柱極間距冠在秀3.占7砌米彈到去5.鬼5吉米，最常見(jiàn)的怠結(jié)構(gòu)是無(wú)梁實(shí)耳心混凝土樓蓋連。樓蓋的下表緊面可以作為下才層空間的天花幅板。辦公大樓呼中常使用岸波紋鋼地板，涉這是因?yàn)椴y踢鋼地板的波紋拆當(dāng)由另一塊金削屬板蓋上時(shí)，儉可以形成電話詞線和電線管道逃。策機(jī)械和電力系岸統(tǒng)碗。央一個(gè)現(xiàn)代建筑艇不僅包括必要鑄使用空間（辦處公室，教室，兼公寓）而且也第包括機(jī)械、電倉(cāng)力系統(tǒng)等的輔厲助空間，以便犧營(yíng)造一個(gè)舒適竟的生活環(huán)境。雞這些輔助空間屬可能占摩天大亡樓總建筑面積或的轉(zhuǎn)25踐%允。在一個(gè)辦公延大樓中，供暖免、通風(fēng)、電力敞和衛(wèi)生設(shè)備系柱統(tǒng)的預(yù)算額占痰實(shí)際建筑總預(yù)纏算額偏的何40黑%門(mén)，顯示了它們朵在建筑中的重疾要性。因?yàn)樵S變多建筑是密封宜的，窗戶(hù)不能型被打開(kāi)，因而無(wú)由機(jī)械系統(tǒng)提醬供了通風(fēng)設(shè)備喊和空氣調(diào)節(jié)設(shè)掉備。新鮮空氣勢(shì)從中央換氣室最由空氣調(diào)節(jié)器閱用管道輸入。圓通風(fēng)管和控制刊照明設(shè)備單元所由懸掛在上面克樓層結(jié)構(gòu)下面狗的天花板遮住狠了。提供動(dòng)力撫的電力線路和壘電話通訊線路倍也可能在天花氣板里或者也可舍能在樓地面結(jié)返構(gòu)層中的管道謀或?qū)Ь€管里。交我們?cè)鴩L試性罪地把機(jī)械、電相力系統(tǒng)加入建林筑物的建筑學(xué)前中去。例如在痕愛(ài)荷華州首府炭的美國(guó)共和保莖險(xiǎn)公司大樓，狂管道和樓地面蜻的結(jié)構(gòu)層有組槍織的、優(yōu)美的炭懸掛在天花板悲上。這類(lèi)型的醋方法使得建筑禍物的花費(fèi)盡可鉆能的減少了并雷且使結(jié)構(gòu)有了淹創(chuàng)新，例如在愚結(jié)構(gòu)間距方面構(gòu)。泉土地和地基胞。所有的建筑歉物都是靠土層舒支撐在地面上混的，因而土的塘特性成為建筑旅設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)極其重主要的考慮因素賓。基礎(chǔ)的設(shè)計(jì)屈取決于土的許商多因素，例如遣土的類(lèi)型，土包分層的情況，向土層的厚度和聯(lián)它的密實(shí)度，串以及地下水的罷情況等。土層充很少有一個(gè)單暈一的成分；他離們通常是厚度喇變化的混合狀攀態(tài)土層。據(jù)評(píng)模定，土層的等頃級(jí)是根據(jù)土分學(xué)子的大小來(lái)劃狡分，從小到大姓依次是淤泥、秧粘土、沙、石泛子、巖石。通倍常，較大分子悉的土支撐的荷攜載要大。最堅(jiān)眨硬的巖石能夠襖支撐的荷載大容約是每平方跨米遍10苦0炸噸，而最軟的劑淤泥僅能夠支暗撐的荷載大約紫是每平方黨米納0.2漸5慶噸。所有地表丘以下的土都處悟于受壓狀態(tài)，掀說(shuō)得更精確些閉，這些土承受辮與作用在其上頌的土柱重量相骨等的壓力。許畝多土顯示出彈購(gòu)性的性仿質(zhì)采—惹—豈在荷載作用下刪受壓變形，當(dāng)崗荷載解除后可亮以回彈。土的醬彈性常隨時(shí)間何而改變，更精癢確地說(shuō)，土層咽的變形在恒載斗作用下隨著時(shí)宇間的增長(zhǎng)而不禽斷地改變。過(guò)柱一段時(shí)間后，組如果加于土層套上的荷載大于毯土自然壓緊狀四態(tài)下的重量，遭則建筑物會(huì)產(chǎn)任生沉降。相反傳，則會(huì)產(chǎn)生隆譯起，建筑物的圾重量可能會(huì)使班土產(chǎn)生流動(dòng)；棍也就是說(shuō)，經(jīng)域常會(huì)發(fā)生土被過(guò)擠出。贊由于土受壓和種流動(dòng)的影響，油使建筑物發(fā)生治沉降。不均勻顧沉降例如比薩趨斜塔，損壞的捆結(jié)果是建筑物燕發(fā)生傾斜，墻污和隔墻可能出稻現(xiàn)裂縫，窗戶(hù)遲和門(mén)可能產(chǎn)生母變形，或者甚斃至建筑可能倒墊塌。均勻沉降順不會(huì)如此嚴(yán)重鳥(niǎo)，盡管可能出逐現(xiàn)危險(xiǎn)狀況，腳例如墨西哥城頃的一些建筑，喇出現(xiàn)各種各樣求的后果，在過(guò)壤去的一年里，峰地下水位發(fā)生京了改變，致使劑一些建筑下沉綠了恥3蘆米多。因?yàn)轭?lèi)本似的狀況可能數(shù)發(fā)生在建造時(shí)牧也可能是建造塞后，因此小心留處理建筑物下鎖的土層是極其循重要的。餅土層巨大的變扶化使得解決地佩基問(wèn)題的辦法大多樣化。如果泡表面土層下的礦土為堅(jiān)硬土層甩，最簡(jiǎn)單的辦劑法是采用混凝辦土基礎(chǔ)。若是注軟弱土層，加寧大柱的面積；認(rèn)假如這樣的話友，整個(gè)建筑就畫(huà)可采用筏板基皮礎(chǔ)。假設(shè)表面聞土層不能夠支熔撐建筑物的重野量，尚木結(jié)構(gòu)建筑、麗鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建筑、況或者混凝土建慰筑應(yīng)建造在堅(jiān)灣硬土層上。冷建造一幢建筑峰物一般是從