CHAPTER8InfluenceTheTitlesTwoRoutestoInfluence:AnOrganizingModel?TheCentralRoutestoInfluence:TheMessageandItsDeliveryPeripheralRoutestoInfluenceTheRoleofReceivers—TargetsofInfluenceChapterSummary1.TwoRoutestoInfluence:AnOrganizingModelAnalternativewayisbasedonamorecontemporaryunderstandingofhowpersuasionworks.ThisapproachdevelopedinastreamofresearchbyRichardPrettyandJohnCacioppo,suggeststhattherearetwogeneralpathsbywhichpeoplearepersuaded.Thefirstoneoccursconsciouslyandinvolvesintegratingthemessageintotheindividual’spreviouslyexistingcognitivestructures.Thesecondroutetopersuasion,theperipheralroute,ischaracterizedbysubtlecuesandcontext,withlesscognitiveprocessingofmessage.2.TheCentralRoutestoInfluence:TheMessageandItsDeliveryFactsandideasareclearlyimportantinchanginganotherperson’sopinionsandperceptions,buttheeffectivenessofpersuasioneffortdependsonhowthefactsandideasareselected,organized,andpresented.Therearethreemajorissuestoconsiderwhenconstructingamessage:thecontentofthemessage,thestructureofthemessage,andthedeliverystyle.2.1MessageContent-1(1)MaketheOfferAttractivetotheOtherParty

Negotiatorsshouldemphasizetheadvantagetheotherpartygainsfromacceptingtheproposal.

Thebetternegotiatorunderstandstheother’srealneedsandconcerns,themorehecananticipatetheother’sobjectionsandstructurethepresentationtocounteractthem.(2)FrametheMessageSotheOtherPartywillSay“Yes”

Ifyoucangettheotherpartytoagreetosomething—almostanything—thenyouhavelaidthefoundationforsubsequentagreements.2.1MessageContent-2(3)MaketheMessageNormative

Peoplearemotivatedtobehaveconsistentlywiththeirvalues,thatis,theirreligious,social,orethicalstandards.

Theotherpersonthatbyfollowingacourseofaction,shewillbeactinginaccordancebothwithhervaluesandwithsomehighercodeofconduct.(4)Suggestan“AgreementinPrinciple”

Principlessoundgood,andmostpeoplemayagreewithwhattheyadvocate,butthereisusuallygreatuncertaintyabouthowaprincipleappliestoaspecificsituation.2.2MessageStructure-1(1)One-andTwo-SidedMessages

Onesideapproach:manypeopledealwiththisproblembyignoringargumentandopinionsthatmightsupporttheotherparty’sposition.Twosideapproach:ignoringthecompetitionistomentionanddescribetheopposingpointofview,andthenshowhowandwhyitislessdesirablethanthepresenter’spointofview.(2)MessageComponentNegotiatorscanhelptheotherpartyunderstandandaccepttheirargumentbybreakingthemintosmaller,moreunderstandablepieces.(Fisher,1964;Ikle,1964)2.2MessageStructure-2(3)RepetitionRepetitionencouragescentral-routeprocessingandthusenhancesthelikelihoodthatthemessageswillbeunderstood.However,repeatingapointiseffectiveonlyforthefirstfewtimes.

(4)ConclusionsIngeneral,donotassumethatgivenasetoffactsorarguments,theotherpartywillreachthesameconclusionyouwouldreach;drawexplicitconclusionsforlistenerstoensurethattheyhaveunderstoodtheargumentcompletely.2.2PersuasiveStyle:HowtoPitchtheMessage-1(1)EncourageActiveParticipation

Negotiatorswhocanusactiveapproachesaregenerallymorepersuasivethanthosewhodon’tbecauseanactiveapproachrequiresthereceivertoexerteffort,whichleadstoattitudechange.(2)UseVividLanguageandMetaphors

Thevividnessandintensityoflanguagesnegotiatorsusehaveamajoreffectontheirpersuasiveness.Theintensityoflanguagecanalsobeincreasedthroughtheuseoffcolorfulmetaphors,swearwords,orachanginginintonation—fromquitetoloudorloudtoquite.2.2PersuasiveStyle:HowtoPitchtheMessage-2(3)InciteFears

Inessence,threatsareif-thenstatementswithseriousnegativeconsequencesattached:“IfyoudoX,ThenIwillforcedtodoY”.Infact,Threatsareprobablyusedlessfrequentlythanonemightexpect,forseveralreasons.Fear-arousingmessagesmaybesentwithoutissuingthreats.

2.2PersuasiveStyle:HowtoPitchtheMessage-3(4)ViolatetheReceiver’sExpectations

Peoplewhoarguepositionsthatarethoughttobecountertotheirself-interestaregenerallymorepersuasivebecausetheyviolatethereceiver’sexpectationaboutwhatthesendershouldbeadvocating.Anotherwaythatreceivers’expectationscanbeviolatedoccurswhentheyexpectedonestyleofdeliveryfromthespeakerandthenexperienceaverydifferentstyle.Moregenerally,Barryproposedamodelofinfluencethatrevolvesaroundviolatingexpectationsofinfluencetargetsasawaytoincreaseone’seffectivenessasaninfluencer.2.4SectionSummaryInsummary,negotiatorsneedtotakecarewhentheyconstructamessagetopersuadeanotherpartytotheirpointofview.Aspectsofthemessagecontent,messagestructure,anddeliverystylecanallinfluencetheextenttowhichamessagesispersuasive.Whenmessagesarewellcraftedandinfluencedoessuccessfullyoccurthroughthe“centralroute”,thechangeinthetarget’sattitudesismorelikelytobelonglastingandresistantcounterinfluence.3.PeripheralRoutestoInfluenceInthissectionwewillconsiderwaysthatapersoncaninfluenceothersthroughthe“peripheral”route.Insuchcases,thereceiverattendslesstothesubstanceofpersuasiveargumentsandisinsteadsusceptibletomore“automatic”influencethroughsubtlecues.Ourdiscussionofperipheralroutestoinfluencewillconsiderthreesetsofstrategies:messageaspects,attributesofthepersuader,andelementsoftheinfluencecontext.3.1AspectsofMessagesThatFosterPeripheralInfluenceMessageorder

Donotplacetheimportantpointinthemiddleofthemessage(Bettinghaus,1966).Primacyeffect&RecencyeffectFormat

Onewaythatachoiceofmessageformatcaninduceperipheralinfluenceisifitelicitsasnapjudgmentregardingthelegitimacyofargument.

Distractions

Distractionapparentlyabsorbtheeffortthattheotherpartynormallywouldputintobuildingcounterarguments.3.2SourceCharacteristicsThatForsterPeripheralInfluenceWhentherecipientsofapersuasivemessageareunmotivatedorunabletoattendcloselytothesubstanceofthepersuasiveappeal,theybecomevulnerabletosourceeffect.Awidevarietyofsourceeffectscanpotentiallyhaveaneffectontherecipientofapersuasivemessage.Wegroupthemhereintothreebroadcategories:Credibility,Attractiveness,andAuthoritySourceCredibilitySourcecredibilitydependsmostlyonthreethings:thequalificationsofsources,theperceivedtrustworthinessofsource,andself-presentation.Manyotherfactorscontributetosourcecredibility.(1)PersonalReputationforIntegrity(2)“Benefit-of-the-Doubt”FirstImpression(3)IntensiontoPersuade(4)UseorMinimizeStatusDifferences(5)AppearanceandSelf-Presentation(6)Associates(7)PerceivedExpertise(8)PersistenceandTenacityPersonalAttractivenessSomewaysthatanindividualcanenhancehispersonalattractivenesstoatargetofinfluenceoranegotiatingopponent:(1)Friendliness(2)Ingratiation(3)Likeability(4)HelpingtheOtherParty(5)PerceivedSimilarity(6)EmotionAuthority

Theprincipleofauthorityisquitesimple:Peoplewithauthorityhavemoreinfluencethanthosewithoutauthority.Classicstudiesofobediencetoauthoritysuggestthatpeoplewillgotogreatlengthswhentheirbehaviorislegitimizedbyanauthorityfigure.Esteemwithwhichsometitles(orpositions)areheldinsociety.Authoritycantakedifferentformsandyielddifferentoutcomes.3.3AspectsofContextThatFosterPeripheralInfluence-1Reciprocity

Thisnormsuggeststhatwhenyoureceivesomethingfromanotherperson,youshouldrespondinfuturewithafavorinreturn.Thenormofreciprocityplaysanimportantroleinnegotiation.Negotiatorsgiveconcessionsandexpectconcessionsinreturn.Commitment

Oncepeoplehavedecidedsomething,theycanberemarkablypersistentintheirbeliefs,thisprocesshasbeenlabeledcommitmenttoaposition,anditreliesheavilyonthecommonneedthatpeoplehavetoappearconsistent,bothtothemselvesandothers.3.3AspectsofContextThatFosterPeripheralInfluence-2SocialProof

Theprincipleofsocialproofsuggeststhatpeoplelooktootherstodeterminethecorrectresponseinmanysituations,andoftenbehaveincertainwaysbecauseeveryoneelseisdoingso.Theprincipleofsocialproofworksbecausequestionableinformationisgivenweightindecisions.Scarcity

Theprincipleofscarcitysuggeststhatwhenthatwhenthingsarelessavailable,theywillhavemoreinfluence.Innegotiations,thescarcityinfluencestrategymaybeoperatingwheneverthereappearstobeagreatdemandforaproduct.

3.3AspectsofContextThatFosterPeripheralInfluence-3UseofRewardandPunishment

Theseresourcescanbeusedinatleasttwomajorways.(1)negotiatorcanuseexchange—theprocessofofferingresourcesoffavorstosecuretheother’scomplianceandcooperation.(2)negotiatorsattempttousethispoweristhroughpressure—thatis,bythethreatofpunishment.Pressuretacticsproduce,atbest,short-termcompliancewithrequest,buttheyalsoarelikelytoelicitresistancefromtheotherparty.3.4SectionSummaryInthissection,weexaminedseveralwaysthatpersuaderscanusetheperipheralroutetoachieveinfluence.Wediscussedfactorsrelatedtothemessageitself,characteristicsofthemessagesource,andaspectsoftheinfluencecontextthatcanresultininfluence.Influencetargetsareparticularlysusceptibletoperipheralformsofinfluencetotheextentthattheyareunmotivatedand/orunabletopaycarefulattentiontotheargumentativesubstanceoftheinfluence-seeker’smessage.4.TheRoleofReceivers—TargetsofInfluenceJustasnegotiators-as-message-senderscanworktoincreasetheircredibilityandattractiveness,receiverscansignalthesenderaboutthegeneralacceptabilityandfavorablenessofthemessagebeingsent,andsenderscanmonitorthereceiver’sreceptivenessandadaptthemessagesaccordingly.4.1ExploringorIgnoringtheOther’sPositionSelectivelyParaphrase

Paraphrasingensuresthatbothpartieshaveunderstoodeachotheraccurately.Itcanbeveryhelpfulinmovingadiscussionforward.ReinforcePositionsYouLikeintheOtherParty’sProposalsSeveralclassicaltheoriesofbehaviormakethesamepoint:Peoplearemorelikelytorepeatbehaviorthatisrewardedthanbehaviorthatisnotrewarded.(Homans,1962;Skinner,1953)Thereareseveralwaystorewardpeopleforwhattheysayduringanegotiation.4.2ResistingtheOther’sInfluence-1HaveaBATNA,andKnowHowtoUseit-1TouseaBATNAeffectively,anegotiatormustaccesstheotherparty’sawarenessthatitexistsand,ifnecessary,sharethatfact.MakeaPublicCommitment

Oneofthemostwaystogetsomeonetostandfirmonapositionistohavehimmake