Gender,PovertyandEnvironment

Genderisrarelyconsideredasamainstreamissueinenvironmentalpoliciesandprogrammers.However,abetterunderstandingofthedifferentprioritiesandperceptionsofmenandwomencanbeusedtomaximizepolicyeffectiveness.

Inmanypartsoftheworld,womentendtobethepoorestofthepoorinaveryliteralsense.Inadditiontobeingthemajorityamongthepoor,theyareoftendeniedthemostbasicrightsandaccesstocriticalresourcessuchasland,inheritanceorcredit.Theirlabourandknowledgeareundervalued.Theirneedsareoftenoverlooked.Theyaremorevulnerabletodiseaseanddisastersandthesituationismadeworsebytheirpoverty.Culturalandsocialnormssometimescomplicatemattersfurtherbyplacingadditionalexpectations,restrictionsandlimitationsonwomen.Gendergapsarewidespread,andinnoregionoftheworldarewomenequaltomeninlegal,socialandeconomicrights.

Thesynergiesbetweenthegoalsofgenderequity,povertyalleviationandenvironmentalsustainabilityareexploredbelowintermsofaddressingpovertyamongwomen--includingenergyandwaterpoverty,health,climatechange,naturaldisastersandcreatingsustainablelivelihoodsbyempoweringwomenintherealmsofagriculture,forestandbiodiversitymanagement.

Energy,environmentandgender

Thesynergiesbetweengender,environmentandtheenergysectorwerefirstrecognizedinrelationtobiomassenergy.Womenwererecognizedasusersandcollectorsoffuelwood,andasvictimsofenvironmentaldeteriorationthatcausedenergyscarcity.

Thesurveyshaveshownthatwomenspendlonghoursinfuelcollection.Theburdenincreasesasdeforestationworsens,andthisaffectsthetimeavailabletowomenforotheractivitiesincludingincome-generatingactivities,educationandparticipationindecisionmaking.InSudan,forinstance,deforestationinthelastdecadeledtoaquadruplingofthetimewomenspentgatheringfuelwood.Thisstimulatedeffortstopromoteafforestationanddesignmorefuel-efficientstoves.Fundingpeteredout,however,whentheimprovedstovesandforestryprojectswerenotassuccessfulasanticipated.

Attentiontobiomassenergyanditsimpactonwomen'sliveshasrecentlyrevived.Indoorairpollution,mainlyfromwoodfuelsmoke,rankedasthefourthlargesthealthproblemindevelopingcountries.Itisestimatedtokill2millionwomenandchildrenindevelopingcountrieseveryyearandalsocausesrespiratoryandeyediseases.Therearedifferencesinexposureaccordingtoageandeconomicstatus,andinsomecultureswomentendtoundervaluetheirownhealth,leadingtounder-reportingofproblems.

Inmanydevelopingcountries,communallandsremainacrucialsourceofbiomassenergy,yetprivatizationoftheselandscontinuesapace--reducingfreeaccesstofuelwood,andremovingyetanotherwherecooperativedecisionscouldbemadeonsustainablemanagementoffuelwoodsources.

Indevelopedcountries,thelinksbetweengender,environmentandenergyhavebeenexploredmainlyintheareasofequalopportunityintheenergyprofessions,decisionmakinginenergypolicy,pollutionandhealth,preferencesforenergyproductionsystems,accesstoscientificandtechnologicaleducationandthedivisionoflabourinthehome.

Climatechangeandgender

Climatechangeispredictedtocausedisplacementofpopulationsduetosealevelrise.Inmanypartsofthedevelopingworlditisexpectedtoincreasewaterscarcity,toincreasethediseaseburden,tonegativelyimpactagriculture,andtocausemorefrequentextremeweatherevents.Theeffectsofclimatechangeandadaptivecapacityareverylikelytodifferbygender,becauseofthestrongrelationshipbetweenpovertyandvulnerability,andthefactthatwomenasagrouparepoorerandlesspowerfulthanmen.

Thepotentialvalueofgenderasafactorindecidingonpoliciesandprogrammestoreducegreenhousegasemissionshasreceivedevenlessattention.Forexample,asusersofhouseholdenergy,womencanplayakeyroleinenergyconservation,aswellasinpromotingrenewableenergytechnologies.

Bothsexesmakedecisionsabouttheformsoftransporttheyuseandhowfrequentlytheytravel,andtherearegenderdifferencesinthechoicestheymake.Indevelopedcountries,forexample,womentendtousepublictransportmorethanmen.

Landtenureandagriculture

Despitewomen'skeyroleinagriculture,mostoftheworld’swomendonotequallyown,inheritorcontrollandandotherproperty.Discriminatoryinheritanceandpropertyownershiplawsrestrictwomen'sabilitytoensurelong-termfoodsecurityforthefamily,andtogetloansusinglandascollateral.Theyalsohaveimportantconsequencesforsoilandlandmanagement--itiswidelyacknowledgedthatownersoflandtakemorecaretoensuresoilconservation.Improvedaccesstoagriculturalsupportsystems,includingcredit,technology,education,transport,extensionandmarketingservices,isessentialtoimprovingagriculturalproductivityandpromotingenvironmentallysustainablepractices--yetoftenwomenhavenoaccesstotheseservices.

Thedivisionoflabourbetweenmenandwomeninagriculturalproductionvariesconsiderablybetweencultures.However,asabroadgeneralization,Itisusuallymenwhoareresponsibleforlarge-scalecashcropping,especiallywhenitishighlymechanized,whilewomentakecareofhouseholdfoodproductionandsomesmall-scale,lowtechnologycultivationofcashcrops.Thishasimportantimplicationsforbiodiversity.Gender-differentiatedlocalknowledgesystemsplayadecisiveroleinconserving,managingandimprovinggeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture,InKenya,men'sknowledgeoftraditionalcropsandpracticesisactuallydecliningasaresultofformalschoolingandmigrationtourbanareas.Bycontrast,womenretainawidelysharedlevelofgeneralknowledgeintheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversityaboutwildfoods,craftandmedicinalplants,andacquirenewknowledgeaboutnaturalresourcesastheirrolesanddutieschange.

Water

Lackofaccesstocleanpotablewaterhasbeenrecognizedasafactorincreasingwomen'sworkburdensinthosepartsoftheworldwheretheyareresponsibleforcollectingwaterforbasicneedslikecooking,cleaningandhygiene.Insomecaseswatercollectioncantakeupto60percentoftheirworkingtime.

InruralAfrica,womenandgirlsspendasmuchasthreehoursadayfetchingwater,usingupmorethanone-thirdoftheirdailycaloricenergyintake.Thislimitsthetimeavailableforthemtoengageinwage-earningeconomicandsocialactivitiesanddevelopmentprojects.Lackofcleanwaterisalsoresponsibleforwaterbornediseasesamongchildren--oneofthemajorcausesofchilddiseaseandmortality.Thisfurtheraddstowomen'schildcareresponsibilities.

Thelackofeasilyaccessiblewaterhashealthimplicationsforwomenaswell.Carryingheavywaterjarsoverlongdistancesduringpregnancycanresultinprematurebirths,prolapseduterusorbackinjuries.Constantexposuretowaterwhilecollecting,washingclothes,cleaningandcookingputswomenatgreaterriskofcontractingwater-relateddiseases.Forinstance,ineasternTanzania,urinaryschistosomiasis,awater-relateddisease,wasmostcommonamongboys,andalsoamonggirlsandwomenbetweentheagesof10and40.Theincidenceamongboyswasassociatedwithswimming.Amongwomenandgirls,itwasassociatedwiththelocalpracticeofwashingclotheswhilestandinginschistosomiasis-infestedwater.

Health

Thelinkbetweenhealthandtheenvironmenthasbeenwidelyrecognized,ifnotfullyactedupon,inrecentyears.Uncleanwateranduntreatedsewageareresponsibleforthespreadofwaterbornediseasessuchascholeraandintestinalparasites.Limitedaccesstowatermayberesponsibleforthespreadofgerms.pollutantsintheenvironment(includingairpollutantsfromtransportandindustry,chemicaltoxinsandheavymetalsfromindustrialprocesses,anddioxinsfromwasteincineration)poseaconstantthreattothehumanbody.Climatechangeisexpectedtoincreasetheburdenofdiseaseconsiderablybyallowingvectorstobreedinlatitudesoraltitudeswherecurrenttemperaturespreventthem.

Menandwomenareexposeddifferentlytoenvironmentalrisks,andtheirbodiesmayresponddifferentlyeventothesamethreats.Forinstance,theincidenceofrespiratoryillnessesisconsiderablyhigheramongwomenandyoungchildren,whoareconstantlyexposedtoindoorairpollution,thanamongmen.

Poornutritionallevelscanmakepeopleparticularlyvulnerabletoinfectiousdiseases,andageandgendermayexacerbatethisrisk.Malaria,forexample,ismorelikelytocauseseriousproblemsordeathinyoungchildrenorpregnantwomen.Duringpregnancy,itcancausesevereanemia,anditcanalsoharmthefetus,increasingthechancesofabortion,prematurebirth,still-birth,intrauterinegrowthretardationandlowinfantbirthweight.

OneofthenewestthreatstohealthandsocialwelfareisthespreadofHIV/AIDS.Bothsexesareaffected,buttodifferentextentsindifferentpartsoftheworld.Globally,menaccountfor52percentofinfectedadults.Lackofinformationamongwomenonhowthediseaseistransmittedconfoundstheprobleminmanyregions.Insub-SaharanAfrica.65percentofthoseinfectedarewomen.Inthisregion,womengrowmostofthefood,andwomen'sagriculturallabouroftenshowsthefirstsignsofwidercommunitydisruptionbyHIV/AIDS.Forexample,inMalawi,Mozambique,ZambiaandZimbabwewherewomenareresponsibleformostfoodproduction,therehasbeenaprogressiveshiftfrommaizeproductiontolesslabour-intensive,andlessnutritious,cassavaproductiontocompensateforthelabourlostthroughHIV/ADS.

Urbanization

Untilrecently,thelinkbetweengender,theenvironmentandurbanizationwasmostlyseenasruralwomenbeingleftbehindinruralareastotakecareofagriculture,whilemenmigratetocitiesinsearchofabetterincome.Thisfocushasslowlyexpandedtoincludetheimpactofurbanenvironmentsonwomen.Inmanydevelopingcountries,peoplemigratingasunskilledlabourerstoacityfaceachallengeinaccessingevenbasicnecessitiessuchasfood,water,andhousing,andtheyarevulnerabletoexploitationandeconomicabuse.

Airandwaterpollutioncanbeextremeinurbansettings,andsanitationandwastetreatmentpoorornon-existentinlow-costresidentialareasandslums,Housingtenurepatternsintownsandcitiesalesometimesgenderdistorted:itisoftenharderforwomentohavesecuretenureoftheirhousingorland.Inaddition,inequitableinheritancepracticesleavefemale-headedhouseholdsextremelyvulnerable,especiallywherelandgrabbingoccurs.Manyurbanhouseholdshavefemaleheads,andtypicallythesearepoorerandmorevulnerablethanhouseholdswithacouple.

Environmentaldisasters

Disastersdonotstrikeevenlybysocialclassorgender.However,itiswellestablishedthatthepooraremoreexposedtoenvironmentalandotherdisasters,andalsomorevulnerabletothemwhentheyoccur.Theyaremorelikelytoliveindisaster-proneareas,invulnerable,badlybuiltandbadlysitedhousing,andwithfewresourcestopayforrescueorrehabilitation.

Anyonewhoislocated(sociallyand/orspatially)"outoftheloop"ofinformationsuppliedbyearlywarningsystemsislikelytosuffermorefromdisasters.Insomecountries,theseindividualsaremorelikelytobewomenthanmen.The1991cycloneinBangladeshresultedinadisproportionatenumberoffemaledeaths(71per1,000womenasagainst15per1,000men).Thiswaspartlybecausewarningsofthecycloneweredisplayedinpublicplaces,lessfrequentedbywomen.Researchersalsofoundthatwomendelayedleavingtheirhousesformuchlonger,inordertoavoidtheimproprietyofbeingaloneinpublic.Womenwerealsolesslikelytohavebeentaughthowtoswim.

Ontheotherhand,mensometimestreatdisasterwarningslessseriously.MorementhanwomendiedinFloridaandtheCaribbeanduringHurricaneMitchin1998,inpartbecausetheyventuredintothestorm.TheearthquakeinKobe,Japanin1995demonstratedcleargenderdifferentiatedimpactsbothduringandaftertheevent.

ChallengesfortheFuture

Thefullsuccessofforward-lookingstrategiesforbringinggenderintoenvironmentalanalysis--andviceversa--mayhingeonthreemajorareasofactivity.

First,improvingandsupportingwomen'scapacitytoparticipateandshapeenvironmentalpolicyandactionatalllevelsfromgrassrootstogovernment.Worldwide,womenarestillverypoorlyrepresentedingovernmentsandotherdecision-makingbodies.Therehasbeenanimprovementinwomen'sparticipationindevelopmentprogrammes,buttheirrolestillfallsfarshortofmen's.Partofthesolutionistopreparewomenforgreaterparticipationbyequalizingeducationandliteracyratesforgirlsandwomenwiththoseofboysandmen.

Second,adjustinggovernmentprioritiessothatawarenessandpromotionofgenderequalityareintegratedintofinancialplanning.In20countriessofar,UNIFEMhassupportedthedevelopmentofgenderresponsivebudgetsthatexaminehowtheallocationofpublicresourcesbenefitswomenandmen,andaddressesgenderequalityrequirements.InMexico,thegovernmentearmarkedtheequivalentof0.85pe