英語(yǔ)專業(yè)考研語(yǔ)言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)資料

主要內(nèi)容

第一部分胡壯麟《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》

第一章《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》各章節(jié)提綱筆記

第二章《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》重難點(diǎn)學(xué)習(xí)提示

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第四章《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》課后答案

第五章胡壯麟的語(yǔ)言學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)英漢對(duì)照翻譯表

第二部分戴煒棟《簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》

第三部分語(yǔ)言學(xué)試題集錦精華

第一部分胡壯麟《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》

第一章《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》各章節(jié)提綱筆記

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics

1.1Whystudylanguage?

1.Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.

2.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.

3.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.

1.2Whatislanguage?

Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocal

symbolsusedforhumancommunication.

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage

Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhich

candistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.

1.3.1Arbitrariness

Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthatthefonnsoflinguisticsignsbearno

naturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.

1.3.2Duality

Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthat

unitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel

andeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.

1.3.3Creativity

Creativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityand

itsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeapplied

repeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguage

providesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.

1.3.4Displacement

Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheirusersto

symbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeand

space)atthemomentofconversation.

1.4Originoflanguage

1.Thebow-wowtheory

Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewild

environmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.

2.Thepooh-poohtheory

Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsof

pains,angerandjoywhichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.

3.The"yo-he-ho"theory

Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgrunts

whichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.

1.5Functionsoflanguage

AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:

1.Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;

2.Poetic:toindulgeinlanguagefbritsownsake;

3.Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;

4.Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;

5.Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;

6.Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.

Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafiinctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthat

languagehasthreemetafunctions:

1.Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinfbnnation,tocommunicateacontent

thatisunknowntothehearer;

2.Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialand

personalrelationships;

3.Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomake

anystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtext

andmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.

AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:

1.5.1Informative

Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthought

andpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.

1.5.2Interpersonalfunction

Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablish

andmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.

1.5.3Performative

Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocial

statusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,the

blessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthe

cursingofenemies.

1.5.4Emotivefunction

Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguage

becauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudienceforor

againstsomeoneorsomething.

1.5.5Phaticcommunion

Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seemingly

meaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,

etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutany

factualcontent.

1.5.6Recreationalfunction

Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyof

usingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.

1.5.7Metalingualfunction

Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkabout

itself.E.g.Icanusetheword"book"totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsouse

theexpression"thewordbook"totalkaboutthesign"b-o-o-k“itself.

1.6Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageof

anyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.

1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics

1.7.1Phonetics

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:

articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.

1.7.2Phonology

Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,and

sequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.

1.7.3Morphology

Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemesand

word-formationprocesses.

1.7.4Syntax

Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoform

sentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

1.7.5Semantics

Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.

1.7.6Pragmatics

Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.

1.8Macrolinguistics

Macrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrom

microlinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.

1.8.1Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,in

processingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.

1.8.2Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsin

languageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofits

users.

1.8.3Anthropologicallinguistics

Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguage

andcultureinacommunity.

1.8.4Computationallinguistics

Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcenters

aroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.

1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguist

triestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofa

language-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeupon

themotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.

Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseof

languageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandfbrall.

Forexample,uDon,tsayX."isaprescriptivecommand;"Peopledon't

sayX：'isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghow

thingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18"century,allthe

mainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modem

linguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasascience

determinesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.

1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic

Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspoint

ofobservation.Saussure\diachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguage

throughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglish

usedinShakespeare^timewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechanges

Englishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodem

linguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.

Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfully

studieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplacein

itshistoricaldevelopment.

1.9.3Langue&parole

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandthe

actualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueis

relativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituational

constraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysa

naturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,

istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularities

governingallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.

1.9.4Competenceandperformance

AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeabout

thesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseof

languageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesa

speakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandto

recognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker'scompetenceis

stablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocial

factors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposed

competence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,

ratherthanperformance.Chomsky'scompetence-performancedistinctionis

notexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure'slangue-parole

distinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofa

community,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeach

individual.Saussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalor

sociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhis

issuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.

1.9.5Eticvs.emic

[Thesetwotermsarestillveryvaguetome.AfterIreadJiDaohong's

book,Icanunderstandthembetter,butbecausetheyarevaguelymentioned

inHu'sbook,itseemsverydifficultformetounderstandthemfully.-

icywarmtea]

Beingeticmeansresearchers9makingfartoomany,aswellas

behaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewith

phoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.

Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedas

meaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunity

ratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator\ingenuityorintuitionalone.

Followingthesuffixformationsof(phon)eticsvs(phon)emics,these

termswereintroducedintothesocialsciencesbyKennethPike(1967)to

denotethedistinctionbetweenthematerialandfunctionalstudyoflanguage:

phoneticsstudiestheacousticallymeasurableandarticulatorilydefinable

immediatesoundutterances,whereasphonemicsanalyzesthespecific

selectioneachlanguagemakesfromthatuniversalcataloguefroma

functionalaspect.

Chapter2SpeechSounds

2.1Speechproductionandperception

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:

1.Articulatoryphonetics-thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds

2.Acousticphonetics-thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesounds

producedinspeech

3.Auditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsounds

Mostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.

2.2Speechorgans

Speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionof

speech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiator

oftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.

2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription

2.3.1Segmentsanddivergences

AstherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters,eachlettermust

representmorethanonesound.

2.3.2Phonetictranscription

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbolsfbr

representingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtothe

principlesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistsof

lettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,some

arespecialsymbols.

2.4Consonants

2.4.1Consonantsandvowels

Aconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractat

someplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairinthe

oralcavity.

Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotal

stoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.

2.4.2Consonants

Thecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveral

factors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:

1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayin

whichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(manner

ofarticulation);

2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,orthe

obstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).

2.4.3Mannersofarticulation

1.Stop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheair

streamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,

[□(r9(Q(z9?(39209/Jo]arestopsand

[003■石arenasalstops.

2.Fricative:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbyallowingtheair

streamfromthelungstoescapewithfriction.Thisiscausedby

bringingthetwoarticulators,e.g.theupperteethandthelowerlip,

closetogetherbutnotclosesenoughtostoptheairstreams

completely.InEnglish,

?EQ個(gè)&*石3€(r9年國(guó)守阻笈]are

fricatives.

3.(Median)approximant:Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatoris

closetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuch

anextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclass

ofsoundsincludes[<(：9口09⑺.

4.Lateral(approximant):Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedby

partiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythe

tongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[?]

istheonlylateralinEnglish.

Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.

2.4.4Placesofarticulation

1.Bilabial:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.

2.Labiodental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipand

theupperfrontteeth.

3.Dental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadebythetonguetiporblade

andtheupperfrontteeth.

4.Alveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporblade

andthealveolarridge.

5.Postalveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipand

thebackofthealveolarridge.

6.Retroflex:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipor

bladecurledbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetiporblade

formsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehard

palate.

7.Palatal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongue

andthehardpalate.

8.Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongue

andthesoftpalate.

9.Uvular:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongue

andtheuvula,theshortprojectionofthesofttissueandmuscleat

theposteriorendofthevelum.

10.Pharyngeal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththerootofthe

tongueandthewallsofthepharynx.

11.Glottal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwopiecesofvocal

foldspushedtowardseachother.

2.4.5TheconsonantsofEnglish

ReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglish

pronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhich

showsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas”BBC

English,,or“OxfordEnglish,,becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesector

oftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBC

network.

AchartofEnglishconsonants

MannerofPlaceofarticulation

articulationLabio

BilabiDentAlveolPost-PalatGlotta

Velar

alalaralveolaral1

dental

□切

Stop?a

St小

Nasalo■艮

Fricative?相存分zWV

?e

Approxima

?□er

nt

Lateral■

Affricate

守

Inmanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesameplaceandmanner

ofarticulation.Thesepairsofconsonantsaredistinguishedbyvoicing,the

oneappearingontheleftisvoicelessandtheoneontherightisvoiced.

Therefore,theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowing

way:

[p]voicelessbilabialstop

[b]voicedbilabialstop

[s]voicelessalveolarfricative

[z]voicedalveolarfricative

[m]bilabialnasal

[n]alveolarnasal

[I]alveolarlateral

[j]palatalapproximant

[h]glottalfricative

[r]alveolarapproximant

2.5Vowels

2.5.1Thecriteriaofvoweldescription

1.Thepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,center,orback.

2.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.

Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(often

dividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.

3.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips-variousdegreesoflip

roundingorspreading.

4.Thepositionofthesoftpalate-raisedfororalvowels,andlowered

forvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.

2.5.2Thetheoryofcardinalvowels

[Icywarmteadoesn'tquiteunderstandthistheory.]

Cardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedand

unchanging,intendingtoprovideaframeofreferencefbrthedescriptionof

theactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.

Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsarenumberedfrom

onetoeightasfollows:CV1[X],CV2[HL],CV3[G],CV4[S],CV5閾,

CV6[HCV7[n],CV8[<].

Asetofsecondarycardinalvowelsisobtainedbyreversingthe

lip-roundingforagiveposition:CV9-CV16.[IamsorryIcannottypeout

manyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmayconsultthetextbookp.47.-

icywarmtea]

2.5.3Vowelglides

Pure(monophthong)vowels:vowelswhichareproducedwithoutany

noticeablechangeinvowelquality.

Vbwelglides:Vowelswherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.

Diphthong:Avowelwhichisusuallyconsideredasonedistinctivevowel

ofaparticularlanguagebutreallyinvolvestwovowels,withonevowel

glidingtotheother.

2.5.4ThevowelsofRP

[XH]highfronttenseunroundedvowel

[?]highbacklaxroundedvowel

[寸]centrallaxunroundedvowel

[到lowbacklaxroundedvowel

2.6Coarticulationandphonetictranscription

2.6.1Coarticulation

Coarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwo

successivephonologicalunits.

Anticipatorycoarticulation:Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethe

followingsound,asinthecaseoflamp,itisknownasanticipatory

coarticulation.

Perseverativecoarticulation:Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceofthe

precedingsound,asinthecaseofmap.itisperseverativecoarticulation.

Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecome

nasal.

Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasic

elements.

2.6.2Broadandnarrowtranscriptions

Theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroad

transcription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetail

isreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicate

onlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagiven

languagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeech

sounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.

2.7Phonologicalanalysis

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:articulatory

phonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.Ontheotherhand,phonology

studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeech

soundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcerns

thetwosubjects,sosometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.

Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiestheway

inwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsin

ordertoexpressmeaning.Thatistosay,phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguistic

patterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscoverthe

principlesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthe

variationsthatoccur.

2.8Phonemesandallophones

2.8.1Minimalpairs

Minimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachother

byonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.the

Englishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandin

theirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofa

language,aphenologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscause

differencesofmeaning.

2.8.2Thephonemetheory

2.8.3Allophones

Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignala

differenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalledits

allophones.E.g.inEnglish,whenthephoneme/□/occursatthebeginning

ofthewordlikepeak/口興國(guó)&j/,itissaidwithalittlepuffofair,itis

aspirated.Butwhen/□/occursinthewordlikespeakitissaid

withoutthepuffoftheair,itisunaspirated.Boththeaspirated[□力inpeak

andtheunaspirated[□]inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,i.e.they

arebothheardandidentifiedas/□/andnotas/設(shè)/;theyarebothallophones

ofthephoneme/□/.

2.9Phonologicalprocesses

2.9.1Assimilation

Assimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthe

characteristicsofaneighboringsound.

Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingapreceding

sound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.

Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowing

sound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.

Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.

DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareatthe

endofaword.

2.9.2Phonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrules

Thechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,andvelarization

areallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegment

undergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Ineach

processthechangeisconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsoundor,inthe

caseofprogressiveassimilation,aprecedingsound.Consequently,wecan

saythatanyphonologicalprocessmusthavethreeaspectstoit:asetof

soundstoundergotheprocess;asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;aset

ofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies.

Wecanrepresenttheprocessbymansofanarrow:voicedfricative-

voiceless/voiceless.Thisisaphonologicalrule.Theslash(/)

specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangetakesplace.Thebar(called

thefbcusbar)indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment.Sotherulereads:a

voicedfricativeistransformedintothecorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhen

itappearsbeforeavoicelesssound.

2.9.3Ruleordering

[Nomuchtosay,soomitted-icywarmtea]

2.10Distinctivefeatures

Distinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctive

soundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.

Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribe

thephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesare

alsousedtodescribethesemanticpropertiesofwords.

2.11Syllables

Suprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeech

thatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeatures

aresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.

Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthana

wholeword.

Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.

Closedsyll