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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper11268

HowLawsPromoteEconomicOpportunities

AReview

FabiolaSaavedra-Caballero

AnaMariaTribin

CarolinePerrin

WORLDBANKGROUP

DevelopmentEconomicsGlobalIndicatorsGroupDecember2025

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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper11268

Abstract

Thispaperpresentsacomprehensivereviewoftheliteratureonhowlegalframeworks,regulations,andrightsinfluencewomen’seconomicopportunities.DrawingontheWomen,BusinessandtheLaw2024frameworkasareferencepoint,thepaperadoptsalifecycleapproachtoexaminehowlegalframeworksandpoliciesshapewomen’srolesaseconomicactorsacrossdifferentstagesoftheirworkinglives.Ithigh-lightsstrongevidenceshowingthattheabolitionorreformofgender-discriminatorylawscanenhancewomen’seco-nomicempowermentbyshiftingbothlegalconstraintsandembeddedsocialnorms,althoughthemagnitudeand

natureoftheseeffectsvaryacrosscontexts.Persistentgapsareidentifiedinkeyareassuchaspensionsystems,childcarelegislation,andprotectionagainstgender-basedviolence.Thereviewunderscoresthatlegalreformaloneisinsuffi-cient:advancingwomen’seconomicopportunitiesrequiresacombinationofwell-designedlaws,theireffectiveenforce-ment,andcomplementarypoliciesthataddressinformalinstitutionalbarriers.Nevertheless,legalreformscanserveasameaningfulfirststeptowardensuringbettereconomicopportunitiesforwomen.

ThispaperisaproductoftheGlobalIndicatorsGroup,DevelopmentEconomics.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat

/prwp.Theauthors

maybecontactedatfsaavedra@

,atribinuribe@,andcperrin@.Averifiedreproducibilitypackageforthispaperisavailableat

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fordirectaccess.

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ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

HowLawsPromoteEconomicOpportunities:AReview

FabiolaSaavedra-Caballero,AnaMariaTribinandCarolinePerrin

WomenBusinessandtheLaw

WorldBank

AuthorizedfordistributionbyTeaTrumbic,Manager,GlobalIndicatorsGroup,DevelopmentEconomics,WorldBankGroup

Keywords:Literaturereview,legalreforms,legalframeworks,economicopportunities

JELCodes:J16,K38,K31,D63

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1.Introduction

Lawcanbeatransformativetoolforachievinggenderequality.Whenwell-designedandenforced,legalframeworkshavethepowertoreshapeinstitutions,expandwomen’seconomicopportunities,andchallengedeeplyentrenchedsocialnorms.Byde?ningrightsandresponsibilities,regulatingbehavior,andin?uencingexpectations,thelawplaysacentralroleinenablingwomen’sfullparticipationintheeconomyandinenhancingthewell-beingoffamilies,communities,andsocietyatlarge.Yet,inmanycontexts,legalsystemscontinuetore?ectandreinforcestructuralgenderinequalities,oftenmirroringtheverynormstheyshouldhelptodismantle

(Christophersonetal.,2022)

.

Legalbarriersthatrestrictwomen’seconomicparticipationnotonlylimitindividualpotentialbutalsosuppressbroadereconomicandsocialdevelopment.As

WorldBank(2012

)underscores,advancinggenderequalitycandriveproductivitygains,yieldintergenerationalbene?ts,andfostermoreinclusiveandaccountableinstitutions.Crucially,thesebene?tsarenotzero-sum.Empiricalevidenceshowsthatlegalreformsstrengtheningwomen’sagency,suchaspropertyrights,divorceregulations,andfreedomofmovement,facilitatewomen’sentryintothelaborforcewithoutdisplacingmen,asnoconsistentsubstitutioneffecthasbeenobserved(

Frutteroetal,2023

).

Fromamacroeconomicperspective,legalgenderequalityhasthepotentialtofostercross-countryincomeconvergenceovertime(

Sever,2025

).Estimatesshowthatachievinggenderequalityinthelaborforcecouldboostthelong-runGDPpercapitaby19percentonaverageacrosscountries(

Pennings,2022

),rangingfrom8.8percentonaverageforOECDcountries

1

to50percentonaverageintheMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandSouthAsiaregions(

Fluchtmannetal.,2024

,and

DevadasandKim,2020

).IncreasinggenderequalityineconomicopportunitiesandparticipationcouldraiseglobalGDPgrowthbyupto2.5percentannually,withdevelopingeconomiesbene?tingmostfromimprovedopportunitiesanddevelopedeconomiesfromgreaterequalityinoutcomes.Whatismore,estimatesshowthattheeconomicgainfromreducingthegendergapinlaborforceparticipation,leadershippositions,unpaidcarework,andpoliticalrepresentationwouldbearoundUSD12trillionglobally(

Woetzeletal,2016

).

Buildingoninsightsfrom

WBL(2024)

anditsten-indicatorframework,thispaperrevisitsandsynthesizesempiricalliteraturelinkingtheabolitionorreformofgender-discriminatorylaws,rights,andregulationstoabroadrangeofwomen’seconomicoutcomes.The

WBL(2024)

frameworkoffersarigorousandstructuredbasisforanalysis,alignedwithinternationallyrecognizedstandards.Theseglobalcommitmentsemphasizetheimportanceoflegaland

1Reducingdisparitiesinlaborforceparticipationandworkinghourssimultaneously.

3

institutionalreformsinpromotinggenderequalityandwomen’seconomicempowerment.Theten

WBL(2024)

indicatorscapturekeydimensionsoflegalrightsandprotections,includingmobility,workplacerights,payequity,parenthood,andentrepreneurship;makingitacoherentandpolicy-relevanttoolforassessingprogress.Usingthisframework,weclassifyliteratureaccordingtoeachlegaldomain.First,weidenti?edevidencethatassessestheeffectoflegalreformsonspeci?ceconomicoutcomes.Then,weintegratebroaderempirical?ndingstoexaminehowlegalframeworksshapewomen’slaborforceparticipation,incomegeneration,andeconomicagency.

Thispapercontributestotheliteraturebysynthesizingandanalyzingempiricalevidenceontheintersectionoflaws,rights,andregulationsaffectingwomen’seconomicopportunitiestoprovideevidence-basedinsightsforpolicymakerswhilealsoidentifyingresearchgaps,therebycontributingtobothacademicunderstandingandpracticaleffortstopromotegenderequalityandthroughitfosterinclusiveeconomicgrowth.

Theremainderofthispaperisstructuredasfollows.Section2reviewsthemotivationforthispaper.Section3describesthemethodologyadopted,includingthesearchstrategyandtheinclusion/exclusioncriteria.Section4presentsareviewofcurrentliteraturediscussingtherelevanceoflegalgenderreforms.Section5presentsthereviewofliteraturebyindicator.Section6concludes.

2.Motivation

TheWorldBank’sWomen,BusinessandtheLaw(WBL)projectunderscoresthattheabolitionormodi?cationofdiscriminatorylawsandregulations,andtheestablishmentofenablingregulatoryenvironmentscouldbethe?rststepforpolicymakerstopavethewayfortransformativeeconomicandinstitutionaloutcomes.Accordingto

WBL(2024)

,3.9billionwomenfacelegalbarriersthatrestricttheirabilitytoparticipateintheeconomyworldwide,andin37countrieswomenhavelessthanhalfofthelegalrightsenjoyedbymen,whichaffectsnearlyhalfabillionwomen.

ThetransformativepotentialofpoliciesthatprioritizegenderequalitycanbeglimpsedinFigure1,whichcomparestheWBLlegalframeworkoverallindex(scoredfrom0to100)withtherateoffemalelaborforceparticipationforwomenaged15-65.

Thissimpleexerciserevealsastatisticallysigni?cantrelationship,showingthataone-pointincreaseintheWBLlegalframeworkoverallindexisassociatedwithanaverageincreaseof0.46percentagepointinfemalelaborforceparticipationatthecountrylevelaftercontrollingforrealGPDpercapita.Inasimilarexercise,

Hylandetal(2020)

,usingpaneldatafrom190

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economiesover40years,alsoshowedthatlegalgenderequalityisassociatedwithhigherfemalelaborforceparticipationandevenwithasmallergenderwagegap.

Figure1:FemaleLaborForceparticipationvsWBLLegalFrameworksIndex

Source:AuthorsusingWBLV2.0dataandWorldBank’sWorldDevelopmentIndicators(WDI)

Notes:Femalelaborforceparticipationrateforages15-65expressedinpercentages.WBLLegalIndexV2.0correspondstotheoveralllegalframeworksindex.Bothseriesareforyear2023for169countries.Aone-pointincreaseintheWBLLegalindexisassociatedwithanaverageincreaseof0.48percentagepointsoffemalelaborforceparticipationatcountrylevel.Correlationisstatisticallysigni?cantatthe1%level(p<0.001),witha95%con?denceintervalfortheeffectsizerangingfrom0.34to0.62percentagepointscontrollingforrealGDPpercapita(inconstantdollarsof2021)foryear2023orthelatestavailableafteryear2020.

Differentstudieshaveanalyzedtheeconomicopportunitiesthatarisefromremovinglegalconstraintsforwomenontheireconomicparticipation,andhowthosereformscouldshapebroadereconomicanddevelopmentopportunities.Someexamplesare

AminandIslam

(2015)

,who?ndthatlegalframeworkspromotinggenderequalityinhiringprocessescontributetogreaterfemaleworkforceparticipationin58developingcountries;

Cuberes

andTeignier(2016)

,whoestimatetheaggregateeconomiceffectsofgendergapsinentrepreneurshipandworkforceparticipation,demonstratingthatlegalandinstitutionalbarriersgenerateanexpectedincomeperworkerlossofaround10percentintheshortrun;and

Fieldetal.(2021)

,whodemonstratethatpolicyreformsmandatingwomen’sdirectaccesstotheirwagesstrengthenedtheir?nancialcontroland,inturn,boostedtheirlaborforceparticipation.

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Understandingtheextentoflegalbarriersforwomenoneconomicoutcomesisessentialforinformingpolicydecisionsthatpromotegenderequalityandthroughiteconomicandinclusivegrowth.Thispaperaddressesthisneedbyexaminingexistingevidenceontheeffectsofgenderdiscriminatorylawsandregulationsonwomen’seconomicparticipationusingthestructuredframeworkof

WBL(2024)

,whichprovidesasystematicwaytoassessgender-relatedlegalbarriersacrossmultipledimensions.

3.Methodology

The

WBL(2024)

frameworkoffersacomprehensiveevaluationoflegalbarriersfacedbywomenglobally,analyzingtenkeydomainsthatshapeanenablingenvironmentforwomen'seconomicopportunitiesthroughalife-cycleapproach:1)Safety,2)Mobility,3)Work,4)Pay,5)Marriage,6)Parenthood,7)Childcare,8)Entrepreneurship,9)Assets,and10)Pension,witheachoneofthemdisaggregatedintofoursubtopics(Figure2).

Thesedomainswerechosenbasedoneconomicevidenceandstatisticallysigni?cantassociationswithwomen’seconomicempowermentguaranteeingstructure,policyrelevanceandcomparability.Theyalsoalignwithinternationallegalframeworks,suchastheConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen(CEDAW)andILO(InternationalLaborOrganization)conventions,bothofwhichhighlightcriticalaspectsofgenderequalityineconomicparticipation

WBL(2024)

.

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2)Mobility

?Choosewheretolive

?Internationaltravel

?Traveloutsideherhome

?Confercitizenship

3)Workplace

?Getajob

?Discriminationinrecruitment

?Discriminationinemployment

?Flexiblework

4)Pay

?Equalremuneration

?Nightwork

?Dangerousjobs

?Industrialjobs

>>>

8)Entrepreneurship

?Entrepreneurialactivities

?Accesstocredit

?Genderquota

?Publicprocurementprocesses

Figure2:WBLindicatorsbytopicandsubtopic

1)Safety

?Childmarriage

?Sexualharassment

?Domesticviolence

?Femicide

5)Marriage

?Obedience

?Headofhousehold

?Divorce

?Remarriage

>

6)Parenthood

?Maternitypaidleave

?Leavebenefitspaidbythegovernment

?Paternityleave

?Pregnancyprotection

>

7)Childcare

?Center-basedchildcare

?Childcaresupportforfamilies

?Supportfornonstatechildcareproviders

?Childcarequalitystandards

>

10)Pension

?Fullpensionbenefits

?Partialpensionbenefits

?Mandatoryretirementage

?Carecredits

>

9)Assets

?Equalpropertyrights

?Assetsinheritance

?Survivorbenefits

?Nonmonetarycontributions

Source:Authorsusing

WBL(2024)

Notes:Previouseditionsofthereportassessedfewercategories,primarilyfocusingontheeightoriginalindicators.ChildcareandSafetywereincludedinthe2024edition.

Inordertoidentify,select,andanalyzerelevantandhigh-qualityacademicpublishedliteraturethatalignswiththecategoriesoutlinedin

WBL(2024)

,focusingonunderstandingtheeffectoflawsandlegalreformsacrossdifferentoutcomes,tworesearchquestionswereused:i)Howtheabolitionormodi?cationofgenderdiscriminatorylawsandrightshasimpactedeconomic,social,andinstitutionaloutcomesforwomen?,andii)Isthereadditionalempiricalevidencethatsupportsorcontributestotheresultsobserved?

Basedonthesetworesearchquestions,theliteraturereviewedbysubtopicincludesevidenceonlegalandregulatoryframeworks,whichexaminesempiricalevidenceontheeffectsoflaws,rights,andregulationsoverwomen'seconomicoutcomes;aswellasadditionalevidencewhichfocusesonempiricalevidencefromrandomizedcontrolledtrials(RCTs),experiments,quasi-experimentalstudies,targetedprogramsandimpactevaluationsnotnecessarilylinkedatospeci?clegalorregulatoryframework,butalignedwiththesubtopicunderconsideration.

EventhoughthispaperrigorouslyreviewsacademicliteratureusingWBL’sten-indicatorschemeandtheirrespectivesubtopicstosystematicallypresentevidenceontheeffectsof

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legalandregulatoryframeworks,andempiricalevidenceoneachoneofthem,itispresentedasanevidencereview.

3.1.Searchstrategy

Thesearchstrategyinvolvesfourtraditionalacademicdatabases:GoogleScholar,Scopus,WebofScience,andJSTOR,inadditiontonineadvancedtoolsorplatformsbasedonArti?cialIntelligence(AI)toidentifyrelevantliteratureincludingSciSpace,ConnectedPapers,Inciteful,Consensus,Zotero,Litmaps,SemanticScholar,SciteandScopusAIbyElsevier.

Asforthekeywordsused,“l(fā)egal”,“regulation”,“l(fā)egalreform”,“rights”,“l(fā)aw”,“l(fā)egalgenderreform”,“genderinequality”,“womenbusinessandthelaw”andacombinationofthesesearchwordswiththetenindicatortopicsincludedin

WBL(2024)

.Additionalsearchtermssuchas“impactevaluation”,“experiment”,“policy”,“outcomes”,“RCT”,“empirical”,and“effects”werealsoincorporated.

Werestrictedoursearchtoarticlespublishedfromtheyear2000onwardtore?ecttheresearchinterestonthistopicpromptedbyglobalpolicyeffortssuchastheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsandtocapturethelatestadvancementsintermsofempiricalmethodsanddataquality.Tofocusonpublicationsfrom2000onward,?lterswereapplied.TheprimarilylanguageusedwasEnglish;however,itwaspossibletoidentifystudiesinotherlanguagessuchasFrenchandSpanish.

3.2.Inclusionandexclusioncriteria

Theinclusioncriteriafortheliteraturereviewfocusonstudiesdirectlyrelatedtothetenindicatorsincludedin

WBL(2024)

,incorporatingbothempiricalandtheoreticalresearchthatexaminestheeffectoflegalgenderreformsoverdifferentoutcomes.Studiesemployingquantitative,qualitative,andmixed-methodapproachesareconsidered,withaparticularemphasisonquanti?ableimpacts.Onlypeer-reviewedjournalarticlesandworkingpapersfromrenownedinstitutions

2

areincludedtoensurethecredibilityandrelevanceofthereviewedmaterial.

2TheworkingpaperrepositoriesconsideredtoextractrelevantliteratureincludetheNationalBureauofEconomicResearch(NBER),theCEPRDiscussionPapersfromtheCentreforEconomicPolicyResearch,theSSRN(SocialScienceResearchNetwork),theIZADiscussionPapersfromtheInstituteofLaborEconomics,RePEc(ResearchPapersinEconomics),theWorldBankPolicyResearchWorkingPapers,andtheIMFWorkingPapers.Additionally,repositoriesfromleadingacademicinstitutions,suchastheCowlesFoundationDiscussionPapers(YaleUniversity),theBrookingsInstitutionWorkingPapers,theHarvardUniversityWorkingPapers,andtheOxfordEconomicsPapers,wereincluded.

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Theexclusioncriteriaeliminatepublicationsunrelatedtothetenindicators,studieswithoutrelationshiptolegalframeworksorpolicyimplications,orconsistofnon-peer-reviewedcontentsuchasblogs,opinionpiecesandeditorials.

4.InsightsontheRelevanceofLegalGenderReformsfromWBL-BasedEvidence

Followingthemethodologydescribedearlier,thissectioncompilesevidencefromstudiesthatdrawonWBLdataandfromanalysesre?ectedinitsreports,toassesstheimportanceoflegalgenderreformsonwomen’seconomicoutcomes,showingthatsuchreformsarenotonlyamatteroffairnessbutalsofosterjobcreationandeconomicgrowth.Forexample,

Christophersonetal.(2022)

,drawingonevidencefromcountriessuchasIcelandandRwanda,demonstratethateliminatinglegalbarrierssigni?cantlyboostswomen’slaborforceparticipationandhouseholdwell-being.

Gonzalesetal.(2015)

?ndthatrestrictionsonpropertyrightsandprofessionalopportunitiesdirectlylimitwomen’seconomicengagement,andthatliftingthesebarriersnotonlynarrowsgendergapsbutalsoacceleratesgrowth—highlightingtheneedforreformsthatensureequalopportunitieswithindiverseculturalcontexts.

WBLdatahasbeeninstrumentalinunderstandinghowlegalframeworksin?uencewomen’seconomicempowerment.

Tertiltetal.(2022)

showhowgender-discriminatorylawshinderwomen’slaborforceparticipation,emphasizingthatlegalreformspromotinggenderequalityareessentialforimprovingwomen’seconomicengagementandfosteringsocietaldevelopment.

Sever(2022)

highlightsthatcountriesthatremovelawsthatdiscriminateagainstwomencouldattainmoreinclusiveandhighereconomicgrowth.

Sever(2025

)buildsonthisbyhighlightingtheglobalsigni?canceofgender-equallegalsystems,demonstratingthatsuchreformsenablepoorercountriestoreducetheincomegapwithwealthiernationsandpromoteeconomicconvergence.

Hylandetal.(2020)

showthatequitablelawsleadtohigherlaborforceparticipationandreducedwagegapsforwomen.

PandeandRoy(2021)

furtherarguethatgender-equallawsshapeculturalnorms,whichinturnin?uencelabormarketoutcomes.

Meunieretal(2017)

presentevidenceonastatisticallysigni?cantcorrelationbetweengreaterlegalgenderdisparitiesandlownumbersofnewfemaleentrepreneurswithstrongernegativeimpactonsoleproprietors.

Gonzalesetal.(2015)

showthatrestrictionsonproperty,credit,andemploymentsigni?cantlylimitwomen’seconomicopportunities.

WBLdataalsoprovidesacrucialfoundationforanalyzingtheimpactoflegalframeworksattheglobal,regional,andcountrylevels.ResearchutilizingWBLdataconsistentlyshowsthatwhilelegalreformshaveplayedasigni?cantroleinreducinggenderdisparities,their

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effectivenessvariesbasedonpolitical,social,andeconomiccontexts.

Hylandetal.(2021)

illustratethisvariationthroughcasestudiesintheDemocraticRepublicofCongo,India,andSpain,showingthatwhileSpainwitnessedmeasurableprogress,institutionalweaknessesandculturalbarrierslimitedtheimpactofreformsinIndiaandtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo.Similarly,

Goldin(2023)

highlightsthatlegalprogressintheUnitedStatesinthe1960sand1970swasessentialinnarrowinggendergaps,yetthesereformsfacedresistanceandhaduneveneffectsdependingonmaritalstatusandemploymenttype.Expandingonthis,

Hyland,Islam,andMuzi(2023)

documenthowdiscriminatorylaborlawsintheDemocraticRepublicofCongoreinforceemployerbiasagainstwomen.

WBLdatahasalsoservedasabasisforexaminingspeci?cpolicyareasshapingwomen’seconomicoutcomes.

Anukritietal.(2023)

investigatetheroleofchildcarelawsinshapinglabormarketparticipation,?ndingthatsuchlegislationleadstoameasurableincreaseinwomen'sworkforceengagementovertime.Similarly,

Alonso-Almeida(2014)

identi?eschildcareprovisionsasakeydeterminantofwomen’sworkforceparticipationacrossoccupationallevels,emphasizingtheimportanceofsupportivefamilypolicies.

Ubfal(2024)

assessesthechallengesfacedbywomenentrepreneurs,showingthatdespiteprogressinlegalaccesstobusinessand?nance,restrictionsoncreditandpropertyrightsremainpervasive.

Banerjeeetal.(2024)

analyzesocialprotectionprogramsindevelopingcountries,focusingonbene?tdistributionandtargetingchallengesintheinformalsector.UsingWBLdata,theyhighlightgapsinparentalbene?ts,includinglowmaternityleavesupportandlimitedaccessforinformalworkers.

NeumayerandPlümper(2021)

?ndthatrestrictionsonwomen’seconomicrights,suchaslimitedpropertyownership,restrictedaccessto?nancialresources,orbarrierstoemployment,underminetheir?nancialabilityandpersonaldecision-makingpower,makingitharderforthemtomigratecomparedtomenfromthesamecountries.

Htunetal.(2019)

,usingWBLdata,?ndthatrestrictionsonwomen’slegalcapacityaresigni?cantpredictorsofassetownershipandlaborforceparticipation,whilediscriminationinwageworkandparentalleaveregulationsareassociatedwithboththesizeanddirectionofgenderwagegaps.Finally,

HylandandSheng(2022)

,drawingfromWBL’slongitudinaldataonmaternityandpaternityleavein190countriesover?vedecades,showthatdisparitiesinparentalleaveallocation,particularlylimitedleaveforfathers,correlatewithlowerfemalelabormarketparticipation,evenwherematernalleavehasexpanded.

AnothercriticaldimensionexploredthroughWBLdataistheroleofpoliticalandcivilsocietyengagementindrivinginstitutionalchange.

Behretal.(2024)

showthatdemocraticgovernanceandactivecivilsocietymovementsstronglycorrelatewithlegaladvancementsingenderequality.Their?ndingsemphasizethatwomen’srightsorganizationsareparticularlyin?uentialinsecuringkeylegalprovisions,includingmaternityleaveand

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inheritancerights.Moreover,theirstudysuggeststhatreformsaremoresuccessfulwhencivilsocietyactivismworksintandemwithdemocraticinstitutions,highlightingtheimportanceofgrassrootsadvocacyandlegislativeaction.Similarly,

Kim(2022)

examinestheimpactofwomen'spoliticalrepresentation,?ndingthatfemalelegislatorsarestronglyassociatedwiththeadvancementofmoreequitablelaws.Theirin?uenceismosteffectiveincountrieswithstronglegislativeauthorityanddemocraticgovernance.These?ndingsstressthecrucialroleofinstitutionalandcivicsupportintranslatinglegalreformsintomeaningfulsocialandeconomicprogress.

5.LiteratureReview,byTopic

Thissectionsynthesizesregulatoryandadditionalempiricalevidenceonhowthedomesticlegalenvironmentaffectswomen’seconomicopportunities.Toprovideastructuredanalysis,theliteraturereviewfollowsthetenindicatorsoutlinedin

WBL(2024)

:1)Safety,2)Mobility,3)Work,4)Pay,5)Marriage,6)Parenthood,7)Childcare,8)Entrepreneurship,9)Assets,and10)Pension.

TherelatedliteraturewascompiledusingthemethodologydetailedinSection3,andthe?ndingsarepresentedbyindicatorfollowingthecycleofawoman’sworkinglife.ForasummaryoftheevidencereviewedrefertoAppendixA1,whichpresentsadetailedoverviewofalltheevidenceincludedinthissection.

5.1.Safety

Thiscategoryincludesfourdimensionsrelatedtosafetythataffectwomen’soutcomes,includingiflawaddresseschildmarriage,sexualharassment,domesticviolenceandfemicide.

Intermsofevidenceonlegalandregulatoryframeworksonchildmarriage,

McGavock

(2021)

evaluatesEthiopia’sRevisedFamilyCodeofJuly2000,?ndingsigni?cantreductionsintheprobabilitythatmarriagesinvolvedagirlunderage16,evenisolatingtheeffectsofgovernmentandNGOinterventions.However,theresultsalsoindicateaslightincreaseintheprobabilityofmarriagebetween16and17,suggestingthatsomeearlymarriagesweredelayedratherthanprevented.

Rokicki(2021)

,alsoanalyzingEthiopia’sRevisedFamilyCode,foundreductionsinadolescentbirth,childmarriageandsexualinitiationbeforeage18.

Maswikwaetal.(2015)

analyzedtherelationshipbetweenlawsthatconsistentlysettheminimumageofmarriageforgirlsat18orolderandtheprevalenceofchildmarriageandteenagechildbearinginSub-SaharanAfrica.Theresults

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showthatin4ofthe12countriesstudied,whichhadconsistentlegalprotectionsandwherelawssettheminimummarriageageat18,childmarriagewas40%lesscommon,aswellasteenagechildrearing(25%).

Additionalevidencesuchas

Wilson(2022)

whichestimatestheimpactofchildmarriagebansin17low-andmiddle-incomecountries,showsthatraisingthe