1、Language and social classIf you are an English-speaker you will be able to estimate the relative social status of thefollowing speakers solely on the basis of the linguistic evidence given here:Speaker A Speaker BI done it yesterday I did it yesterdayHe aint got it He hasnt got itIt was her what sai

2、d it It was her that said itIf you heard these speakers say these things you would guess that B was of higher social status than A, and you would almost certainly be right. How is it that we are able to do this sort of thing?The answer lies in the existence of varieties of language which have come t

3、o be called socialclass dialects. There are grammatical differences between the speech of these two speakers which give us clues about their social backgrounds. It is also probable, although this is not indicated on the printed page, that these differences will be accompanied by phonetic and phonolo

4、gical differences- that is to say, there are also different social-class accents. The internal differentiation of human societies is reflected in their languages. Different social groups use different linguistic varieties, and as experienced members of a speech community we have learnt to classify s

5、peakers accordingly. Why does social differentiation have this effect on language?We may note parallels between the development of these social varieties and the development of regional varieties: in both cases barriers and distance appear to be relevant. Dialectologists have found that regional-dia

6、lect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers, such as mountains, swamps or rivers: for example, all local-dialect speakers in the areas of Britain north of the river Humber (between Lincolnshire and Yorkshire) still have a monophthong in words like house (hoose hu:s, whereas speakers so

7、uth of the river have had some kind of haus-type diphthong for several hundred years. It also seems to be the case that the greater the geographical distance between two dialects the more dissimilar they are linguistically: for instance, those regional varieties of British English which are most unl

8、ike the speech of London are undoubtedly those of the north-east of Scotland - Buchan, for example. The development of social varieties can perhaps be explained in the same sort of way - in terms of social barriers and social distance. The diffusion of a linguistic feature through a society may be h

9、alted by barriers of social class, age, race, religion or other factors. And social distance may have the same sort of effect as geographical distance: a linguistic innovation that begins amongst, say, the highest social group will affect thelowest social group last, if at all. (We must be careful,

10、however, not to explain all social differences of language in these entirely mechanical terms since, as we saw in Chapter 1, attitudes to language clearly play an important role in preserving or removing dialect differences.)Of the many forms of social differentiation, for example, by class, age, se

11、x, race or religion, we shall concentrate in this chapter on the particular type of social differentiation 35 illustrated in the examples of speakers A and B - social stratification. Social stratification is a term used to refer to any hierarchical ordering of groups within a society. In the industr

12、ialized societies of the West this takes the form of stratification into social classes, and gives rise linguistically to social-class dialects. (The whole question of social class is in fact somewhat controversial, especially since sociologists are not agreed as to the exact nature, definition or e

13、xistence of social classes .)Social-class stratification is not universal, however. In India, for example, society is stratified into different castes. As far as the linguist is concerned, caste dialects are in some ways easier to study and describe than social-class dialects. This is because castes

14、 are stable, clearly named groups, rigidly separated from each other, with hereditary membership and with little possibility of movement from one caste to another. . In the class societies of the English-speaking world the social situation is much more fluid, and the linguistic situation is therefor

15、e rather more complex, at least in certain respects. Social classes are not clearly defined or labelled entities but simply aggregates of people with similar social and economic characteristics; and social mobility - movement up or down the social hierarchy - is perfectly possible. This makes things

16、 much more difficult for any linguist who wishes to describe a particular variety - the more heterogeneous a society is, the more heterogeneous is its language. For many years the linguists reaction to this complexity was generally to ignore it - in two rather different ways. Many linguists concentr

17、ated their studies on the idiolect - the speech of one person at one time in one style - which was thought (largely erroneously .) to be more regular than the speech of the community as a whole. Dialectologists, on the other hand, concentrated on the speech of rural informants, and in particular on

18、that of elderly people of little education or travel experience, in small isolated villages, .mainly because there was a feeling that hidden somewhere in the speech of older, uneducated people were the real or pure dialects which weresteadily being corrupted by the standard variety . (It turns out t

19、hat the pure homogeneous dialect is also largely a mythical concept: all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because all human communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees. All language varieties are subject to change. There is, therefore,

20、 an element of differentiation even in the most isolated conservative rural dialect.) From: c. 2 in P. Trudgill, Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language and Society,London, Penguin, 1983 (rev. ed.), pp. 34-35.SCUOLA SUPERIORE DELLUNIVERSITA DEGLI STUDI DI UDINEESAME DI AMMISSIONE PER LA CLASSE

21、 UMANISTICAPROVA SCRITTA DI LINGUA INGLESEA.A. 2004/2005Nome e cognome: _Read the attached text (Language and social class) and do the exercises below.Part A: Approaching the textExercise 1: In the attached text there are 7 indented paragraphs. Match each thematic sectionbelow (1., 2., 3., 4.) with

22、the paragraph(s) which is / are conceptually related to it.Ex. 1. Native speakers language awareness (par. _No. 6-7_)DO NOT INSERT THE SAME PARAGRAPH INTO MORE THAN ONE SUB-HEADING1. Native speakers language awareness (par. _ )2. Effects of social differentiation on grammar and phonology (par. _ )3.

23、 Analogies between regional and social dialects (par. _ )4. Social-class dialects: relativity and complexity (par. _ )Exercise 2: Match each connective below with the function it performs in the text by filling thecorresponding blank with eithera (for Additive)b (for Concessive)c (for Causal)or d (f

24、or Contrastive).(PAY ATTENTION TO THE REFERENCE LINE IN BRACKETS AND WRITE ONLY ONE LETTERIN EACH BLANK)1. although (l. 11) _2. for example (l. 20) _3. whereas (l. 22) _4. also (l. 23) _5. however (l. 31) _6. since (l. 39) _7. on the other hand (l. 55) _8. therefore (l. 62) _Part B: Intensive readin

25、gExercise 3: Read the text carefully and tick ( ?) the appropriate answer:1. What is the overall function of the chapter from which this excerpt has been taken?to put forward a new theory to explain the development oflinguistic varieties?to investigate the influence of social stratification onlangua

26、ge use?to explore the relationships between social accents andsocial dialects2. This text is an extract from a textbook called Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language andSociety. Can you guess which of the following topics is NOT likely to be dealt withsystematically in the book?How Languages

27、Are Learned?Language and Context?Language and Ethnic GroupExercise 4: Making reference to the text, decide whether the following statements are TRUE (T), orFALSE (F), or INCOMPLETE (I) paraphrases of the information conveyed in the text (N.B.: thevarious statements appear in the order in which the i

28、nformation is presented in the text):1. According to the author, social-class accents distinguish social differences in spokenlanguage ( _ )2. Social differences of language may be determined by social barriers and socialdistance ( _ )3. Social stratification in the West can be compared to caste soc

29、iety in the East,each having its own characteristic traits ( _ )4. For many years a lot of linguists wrongly considered the idiolect to be less subject tochange than the speech of the community as a whole ( _ )5. According to the author, original, uncorrupted dialect forms can be found amongstthe mo

30、st elderly and isolated segment of a population ( _ )Exercise 5: The following is a list of synonyms for words/expressions which appear in the text inthe paragraph indicated in brackets and in the order given on the list. Find the correspondingwords/expressions and write them down, together with the

31、ir respective line number:1. assess verb (par. 1) _ (line _ )2. indications / signs / hints (par. 2) _ (line _ )3. skilled / knowledgeable adj. (par.2) _ (line _ )4. consequently / as a result of this (par. 2) _ (line _ )5. pertinent (par. 3) _ (line _ )6. borders pl. noun (par. 3) _ (line _ )7. mar

32、sh / wet land (par. 3) _ (line _ )8. circulation (par. 3) _ (line _ )9. stopped (past participle) (par. 3) _ (line _ )10. influence verb (par. 3) _ (line _ )11. debatable (par. 4) _ (line _ )12. unchanging (par. 5) _ (line _ )13. variable adj. (par. 6) _ (line _ )14. scale (par. 6) _ (line _ )15. di

33、sregard / neglect verb (par. 7) _ (line _ )16. illiterate adj. (par. 7) _ (line _ )17. constantly / progressively (par. 7) _ (line _ )Part C: Guided writingExercise 6: Re-read the texts lines indicated in brackets and then complete the followingparaphrases by circling ONE word/expression for each mi

34、ssing item:(ll. 14-16) Sociolinguistic competence involves being able to classify speakers (like / as) belongingto different social groups on the grounds of the linguistic variety they use(ll. 27-29) Social class, age, race and religion, (among / between) other factors, may prove to bepowerful barri

35、ers (who / which) prevent the diffusion of a linguistic feature throughsociety.(ll. 52-53) For many years there (has been / was) a general tendency to ignore language variation.Exercise 7: What follows is an extract (pp. 39-40) from the follow-up of the text Language andSocial Class. It describes th

36、e results of a large-scale survey of the speech of New York conductedby the American linguist William Labov in 1966 and evaluates them against previously- held views.Complete the extract by choosing one option for each missing item from the list below:(1) developed by Labov have proved to be very si

37、gnificant for the study of social-class dialects andaccents. The methods of traditional dialectology (2) be adequate for the description of caste dialects(though even this is (3) since (4) individual, however selected, stands a fair chance of (5) not toodifferent from the caste group as a whole. But

38、 it is not possible to select any single speaker and togeneralize from (6) to the rest of the speakers in his social-class group. This was an important point(7) was demonstrated (8) Labov.The speech of a single speaker (his idiolect) may differ considerably from those of (9) like him.(10), it may al

39、so be internally very inconsistent. The speech of (11) New Yorkers appeared to varyin a completely random and unpredictable manner. . Sometimes they would say beard and badin the same way, sometimes they would (12) a difference. Linguists have traditionally called thisfree variation. Labov (13) , however, that the variation is not free. Viewed against the backgroundof the spe