1、現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)緒論1 Linguisitics : Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in lin guistics com muni cati on is called phon etics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology ” The study of how sounds are put together and used in

2、com munication is called pho no logy.For example,ph on e,ph on eme,a nd alloph one.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to formwords is called morphology.For example,boy and-boyish'：feaich-teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are comb ined to form

3、 senten ces iscalled syntax.For esample,” John like lingu i stics.6 Semantics: The study of meaning in Ian guage is called sema ntics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried. The seal could not be foun d,The king became worried. ” Here the word seal means differe nt t

4、hin gs.7 Pragmatics: The study of mea ning in con text of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do ” The word do means differnext.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of Ianguage with reference to society is called socioli nguistics.For example,regi onal dialects,social variatio n in Ian guage.9Psycholi

5、nguistics:The study of Ianguage with reference to workings of mind is called psycholi nguistics.音系學(xué)1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in lin guistic com muni cati on is called phon etics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in com muni catio n is called phono lo

6、gy.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defi ned as the speech sounds we use whe n speaki ng a Ian guage. A phone is a phon etic unit or segeme nt. It does not n ecessarily disti nguish meaning; some do,some don ' t.4 Phoneme: Phono logy is concerned with the speech sounds which disti nguish meaning. Th

7、e basic unit in phono logy is called phon eme;it is a unit that is of disti nctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phon etic en vir onment are called the alloph ones of that phon eme.6 Complementary distribution: These two alloph ones of the same ph

8、on eme are said to be in compleme ntary distributi on.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segeme nt which occurs in the same place in the sti ngs, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: Whe n a certa in syllable of a word is stres

9、sed, it means that the syllable is proun ced with great force tha n the other or others9 tones: Tones are pitch variati on, which are caused by the differe nt rates of vibrati on of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;therefore, the tone is a suprasegeme ntal

10、feature.10 intonation: Whe n pitch, stress and sound len gth are tied to the sentence rather tha n the word in isolati on, they are collectively known as inton ati on. Inton ati on plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every Ianguage,especially in a Ian guage like En glish$isbest三形態(tài)

11、學(xué)1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formati on.3 derivational morphology: Derivati onal morphology is the study of wor

12、d-formatio n.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are in depe ndent un its of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in comb in atio n with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morp

13、hemes which cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb ined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is ofte n see n as part of a word; it can n ever sta nd by itself although it bears clear,defi nite meanin g; it must be comb ined with ano ther root or an a

14、ffix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: in flecti onal and derivati on al.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beg inning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of theorig inal word and in many cases cha nge its part of speech.11 derivation:

15、Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivati on can be viewed as the add ing of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the comb in a

16、ti on of two or sometimes more tha n two words to creat new words.$isbest四句法學(xué)1 linguistic competence: Comsky defi nes compete nee as the ideal user' s kno wleof the rules of his Ian guage,a nd performa nee the actual realizati on of this kno wledgein lin guistic com muni cati on.2 sentence: A se

17、ntence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises anu mber of words to form a complete stateme nt questi on or comma nd.3 tran sformati on rules: Syn tactic moveme nt is gover ned by tran sformatio nal rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic represe

18、ntation of a senten ce.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before moveme nt take place, the other occurs after moveme nt take place. In formal li nguistic explorati on, these two syn tactic represe ntati on are com mon ly termed as D-structure.5 Mov

19、e a: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a gen eral moveme nt rule acco un ti ng for the syn tactic behavior of any con stitue nt moveme nt. This moveme nt rule is called Move a$isbest五語義學(xué)1 semantics:Sema ntics can be simply defi ned as the

20、study of meaning in Ian guage.2 sense :Se nse is concerned with the in here nt meaning of the lin guistic form. It is the collecti on of all the features of the lin guistic form; it is abstract and dec on textualized.3 reference : Refere nee means what a lin guistic form refers to in the real, physi

21、cal world; it deals with the relati on ship betwee n the lin guistic eleme nt and the non-li nguistic world of experie nee.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the same ness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that t

22、he same one word may have more tha n one mea nin g.A word hav ing more tha n one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antony ms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having di

23、fferent meanings have the same form,i.e. differe nt words are ide ntical in sound or spelli ng, orin both.8 hyponymy : Hyp onymy refers to the sense relati on betwee n a more gen eral, more in elusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Comp onen tial an alysis is a way to an aly

24、ze wprd meaning.It was proposed by structural sema nticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formed ness. The grammaticality of ase ntence is gover ned by the grammatical rules of the Ian guage.11 semantic meaning :

25、 The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selecti on al restricti ons.12 predication : In sema ntic an alysis of a senten ce, the basic unit is called predicati on. The predicatio n is the abstracti on of the meaning of a senten ce.$isbest六語用學(xué)1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be def

26、i ned as the study of how speakers of a Ian guage use senten ces to effect successful com muni cati on.2 context: The no tio n of con text is esse ntial to the pragmatic study of Ian guage. Gen erally speak in g, it con sists of the kno wledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance

27、 meaning: Uttera nee is based on sentence meanin g; it is realizati on of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situatio n of com muni cati on, or simply in acon text.4 locutionary act: A locuti onary act is the act of uttera nee words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of con vey ing literal mea

28、ning by means of syn tax, lexi on and phono logy.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing t he speaker ' s intention;It is the act performed in say ing someth ing.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is th

29、e consequenee of, or the change brought about by the uttera nee; it is the act performed by say ing someth ing.$isbest七歷史語言學(xué)1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a

30、word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a proce

31、ss of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a

32、 process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotatio n.10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a p

33、rocess in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a fami

34、ly of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist .The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a

35、series of phonemes. $isbest八社會(huì)語言學(xué)1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speechvariety: Speech va

36、riety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government

37、 or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socia

38、lly prestigious dialect of languagelt is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of langua

39、ge that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communicatio n.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has be

40、come established as a native language in some speech communicatio n.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describesa situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.1

41、2 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a natio n.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often

42、cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language variet

43、ies that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often epheme

44、ral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“ polite ” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning“ to speak with good wo

45、rds ” . A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensiv word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.$isbest九心理語言學(xué)1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguisticis the study of language in relation to the mind. As the

46、 suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralizatio

47、n: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralizatio n.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguisticsare particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brai

48、n ' s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in th

49、e right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one' sife extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning ca

50、n proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instructio n.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinis m.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believ

51、ed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallelto each other, we may regard thought as“ subvocal speech ” .of lingui

52、stic relativis m.$isbest十語言習(xí)得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children ' s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the communityin which a child has been brought

53、up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristi c. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children ' one-word utterance are also calledholophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in t