Chapter16Cohesion本章學(xué)習(xí)重點(diǎn)：篇章中句子之間的關(guān)系。了解句子連貫語(yǔ)篇邏輯的重要性，學(xué)會(huì)使用各種連句成篇的手段。照應(yīng)替代省略16.0IntroductionWhatistextandwhatisaunifiedtext?Theterm“text”referstoaunifiedpassage.Atextmaybespokenorwritten,proseorverse,dialogueormonologue.Atextismoreasemanticunitthanagrammaticalunit.Atextisrealizedbysentencesthatarewovenintoasemanticallyunifiedunit.Aunifiedtextisonethatisnotonlystructurallywell-integratedbutalsosemanticallycoherent.16.0IntroductionCohesionisasemanticconceptreferringtotherelationofmeaningwithinthetext.Threemajortypesofcohesivedevices:

--reference照應(yīng)--substitution替代--ellipses省略e.g.A:IsJohntryingtoenterHarvardLawSchool?B:No,Idon’tbelieveheis.Hehateslawyers.(reference:he=John)A:…B:No,Idon’tthinkso.Hehateslawyers.

(substitution:so=thatheistryingtoenter…)A:…B:No,heisn’t.Hehateslawyers.

(ellipses:not=nottryingtoenter…)16.1Reference照應(yīng)

Inconnectedspeechorwriting,weoftenhaveitemswhosemeaningwehavetointerpretwithreferencetosomethingelseinthecontext.Exophoricreference語(yǔ)外照應(yīng):referencetothenonlinguisticorsituationalcontextEndophoricreference語(yǔ)內(nèi)照應(yīng):referencetothelinguisticortextualcontext

→twotypesofendophoricwithregardtothedirectionthatthereferencepointstointhetext:anaphoricreference前照應(yīng)cataphoricreference后照應(yīng)16.1Reference照應(yīng)

e.g.

They

arealwaysraisingtheprices.

(exophoricreference語(yǔ)外照應(yīng))Wow,you’vegotahugehouse.Ididn’texpectittobesobig.

(anaphoricreference前照應(yīng))Listen.

This

iswhatIwantyoutodonow.Gobacktoyourroom,putawaythetoys,washyourhandsandcomebacktothetableintenminutes.

(cataphoricreference后照應(yīng))Referencecanalsoberealizedbyavarietyofpro-forms:referencebypronoun人稱照應(yīng)

referencebydemonstratives指示照應(yīng)

referencebycomparison比較照應(yīng)

16.1.1referencebypronoun人稱照應(yīng)Themostcommonpronounsascohesivetiesarepersonalpronouns.e.g.Lookattheman.Ithinkhe’sthepersonwantedbythepolice.MywifeandIaregoingtodineoutthisevening.Infact,wedoiteveryweekend.

16.1.1referencebypronoun人稱照應(yīng)Otherpronounsthatmaybeusedforthatpurposeinclude

(refertopp383-384)

indefinitepronouns:all,each,everyone,anyone,etc.e.g.Sheaskedherstudentswhattheyusuallydidafterschool.Each

gaveheradifferentanswer.

Interrogativepronouns:who,which,what,etc.e.g.Ihavebothteaandcoffee.Whichdoyouprefer?

Arelativepronoun:whiche.g.Shesaidshe’dbeenwaitingforanhour,whichwastrue.16.1.2Referencebydemonstratives指示照應(yīng)用指示代詞或相應(yīng)的限定詞以及定冠詞等表示的照應(yīng)關(guān)系叫指示照應(yīng)Demonstrativessuchasthis,that,these,andthose

→helptoidentifythereferentbydirectlypointingtoit→conveyastrongsenseofinformationcontinuancee.g.Don’ttellmethatwe’llhavehamburgers,snadwichesorhotdogsforlunch.Ilikenoneofthese.(anaphoricreference)

Whenmygrandfatherwasaskedtotellusastory,hewouldbeganlike

this:along,longtimeago…

(cataphoricreference)16.1.2Referencebydemonstratives指示照應(yīng)thedefinitearticlethe

resemblesdemonstrativesinthecohesive

function—indicatingspecificreferencetosomethingelseinthecontext.

the

→consideredasaweakerthate.g.LastyearwewenttoDenverforaholiday.Theholidaywehadtherewasthebestwe’veeverhad.Demonstrativeadverbs

here,there,andthenmaybeusedascohesivetiese.g.TheymovedtoLondonshortlyaftertheygotmarried.Theretheystayedfortherestoftheirlife.16.1.3Referencebycomparison比較照應(yīng)Ascomparisoninvolvesatleasttwoitems,whenwecompareonethingwithanother→setupaparticularrelationbetweenthem(identity/difference;quantity/quality)→requiresreferencetoanotheriteminthecontextforinterpretatione.g.Theyallthinkyoushouldquit.Ihaveadifferentsuggestionifyoustillhaveanypatiencetolistentome.Johnisbothstupidandlazy.Hisbrotherisnobetter.16.2.Substitution替代Differencebetweenreferenceandsubstitution:e.g.1)Ilikethiscar,butIcan’taffordit.(reference)2)Ilikethiscar,butIcan’taffordone.(substitution)Reference:arelationbetweenmeanings

Substitution:arelationbetweenlinguisticitems,suchaswords,phrasesorclausesReferenceitemanditsreferent(i.e.whatisreferredto)→semanticallyequivalent(practicallythesamething)

SubstitutionisarelationinwordingratherthanmeaningAsubstituteandtheitemitreplaces→structuralequivalent

※However,itisimpracticaltodrawaclear-cutlinebetweenreferenceandsubstitution.(p386)16.2.Substitution替代Threetypesofsubstitution:Nominalsubstitution;verbalsubstitutionandclausalsubstitution.ThereareonlyasmallnumberofsubstitutionitemsthatEnglishhasavailableforcohesion:

Nominalsubstitute:one

Verbalsubstitute:do

Clausalsubstitute:so,not16.2.1Nominalsubstitutionbyone名詞性替代One

(ones

forplurality)

asanominalsubstitutecanbeusedtoreplaceapersonaloranon-personalantecedent:

e.g.Hesoldhisoldhouseandboughtanewonethenextday.

Theoldpeopleareretiringandtheyoungonesaretakingover.→inthecasewhereonegoeswithitsownmodifier,itsubstitutesfortheheadwordIknowIneedagoodcar,butIcan’taffordone.→

inthecasewhereonedoesnothaveitsownmodifier→substitutesforthewholeprecedingnounphraseYouseemtobeproudofyoursecretary.I

don’tthinkI’lleverneedone.16.2.1Nominalsubstitutionbyone名詞性替代Differencesbetweennominalsubstitute

oneandnumeralone:(名詞性替代詞one和數(shù)詞one)--nominalsubstitute

one→cantakemodifier

numeralonecannot--nominalsubstitute

one→neverstressed

numeral

one

→stressed--nominalsubstitute

one

→occurinpluralnumeral

one

→alwayssingular(withsomeasitspluralcounterpart)

e.g.CanIhavetheseapples,Mum?

Youjusthadabigone.(substitute)…Yes,butyoucanhaveone(apple)andgivetheresttoyourlittlebrother.(numeral)※numeralone

→relevanttoellipses16.2.2Verbalsubstitutionbydo動(dòng)詞性替代Thesubstituteitemdocanbeusedtoreplaceawholeverbphraseortheheadwordofaverbphrasee.g.A:Youdon’tlikedishonesty,doyou?B:Ofcoursenot.Actually,nobodydoes.(thewholeverbphrase)A:Haveyoufinishedalltheessays?B:Ihavedoneone,butthat’sallsofar.(theheadword)

Otherverbalsubstitute:doso,dothatanddoite.g.Haveyoufinishedwhitewashingthefence?Notyet,butIpromiseIwilldo/doso/dothat/doitintheafternoon.※dothat/doit

→combinationofsubstitutionandreference16.2.3Clausalsubstitutionbysoornot分句性替代Asclausalsubstitutes,so(positive)andnot(negative)→typicallyoccurinreport,conditionandmodality.e.g.A:Ishetherightpersonforthejob?B:Isupposeso/not.A:Ireallyhopeheistherightpersonforthejob.B:Yes,ifso,wecanstarttheprojectrightaway.A:Doyouthinkheistherightpersonforthejob?B:Probablyso/not.※withmodelexpressionslikeperhaps,possibly,probably,certainly,surely,etc.,soasaclausalsubstituteisnotverycommon.

16.2.3Clausalsubstitutionbysoornot分句性替代Intheenvironmentreferredtoas“report”,

soandnot→interchangeablethrough

negationA:Ishetherightpersonforthejob?B:Ibelievenot/Idon’tbelieveso.

Isupposenot/Idon’tsupposeso.Ithinknot/Idon’tthinkso.Withthink,thetransferrednegationiscompulsory,but

notwithotherverbs.?16.3Ellipsis省略

Thebasicprincipleofellipsis:Leavingoutsomethingunderstood

Referstoincompletesentenceswithsuchastructureastopresupposeaprecedingitem.`similartosubstitutioninthatitsetsupcohesiononthebasisofstructuralrecoverabilitywithreferencetothelinguisticcontext※省略是為了避免重復(fù)而省去前面已經(jīng)提到過(guò)的部分。從這一意義上說(shuō)，省略就像替代，根據(jù)語(yǔ)言的上下文省去不必要的部分以達(dá)到語(yǔ)言的連貫性。16.3.1Nominalellipsis名詞性省略Nominalellipsis

→ellipsisthatoccurwithinthenounphraseItistheheadwordofthenounphrasethatisleftout.e.g.TherearefourflightstoNewYorktoday.Let’staketheearliest.(adjective)Whygivemetwocupsofcoffee?Ionlyaskedforone.(determiner)16.3.2Verbalellipsis動(dòng)詞性省略Verbalellipsis

→takesplacewithintheverbphraseTheellipsismayoccurtotheheadword,theauxiliary,orthewholeverbphrase

Itmayalsocoverothersentenceelements,e.g.subject,object,andadverbiale.g.A:Haveyouseenhimbefore?B:Yes,I

have(seenhimbefore).

A:Whathaveyoubeendoinginthegarden?B:(Ihavebeen)

Whitewashingthefence.A:Whoelseiscomingtotheparty?B:Paul(iscomingtotheparty).※Whatistobeleftoutdependsonwhatistakentobethegiveninformation.16.3.3Clausalellipsis分句性省略Clausalellipsis

→ellipsisofawholeclauseOccursfrequentlyasacohesivedeviceindialogue

→asecondspeakermayregardasunderstoodthewholeofwhatwassaidbythefirstspeaker.e.g.A:AreyouOK?B:Yes(,IamOK)

A：Hepromisedtobehereontime.B:Yes,Iknow(thathepromisedtobehereontime).A:Ifinishedthetaskaheadofschedule.B:How(didyoufinishthetaskaheadofschedule)?

16.4Othercohesivedevi