WelcometoLinguisticsANewCourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglish

GoalsforThisCourseTogetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguisticsinordertounderstandhowlanguageisconstructed,howlanguageoperates,howlanguageisusedtodothings,howlanguageisacquiredorlearnt,howlanguagechangesovertimeandvariesaccordingtothesituation,etc.;;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication……forimprovementofEnglishproficiencyingeneralandenhancementoftheawarenessofpatternsandregularitiesintheEnglishlanguage;;Toprepareforthefutureresearchwork.References戴煒棟，何兆熊，2002，《新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程》，上海外語教育出版社。(Textbook)胡壯麟，2001，《語言學(xué)教程》，北京大學(xué)出版社。劉潤清，1995，《西方語言學(xué)流派》，外語教學(xué)與研究出版社。Fromkin,V.&R.Rodman,1998,AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,Ranehart&Winston,Inc.StudyMethodsCombinationofMacroscopicandMicroscopicPerspective宏觀與微觀相結(jié)合1)GeneralgraspoftheCONTENTSContentsisthedistilledsummaryandabstractofthetextprovidingthemainideaofeachchapteraswellastherelationshipamongthechapters.2)DetailedStudyofeachchapterThedetailedstudyofeachchapterwillhelpyoutounderstandthecontentsbetter.ThatistosayFirstreadthecontentstomakeathickbookthinSecondreadeachchaptertomakethebookthickThirdthefinalreviewaccordingtothecontentstomakethebookthinagain2.CombinationofUnderstandingandMemory,TheoryandPracticeTheonlywaytomemorizethebasicconceptsinlinguisticsistounderstandandanalyzetheexamplesgiventoprovetheconcepts.Theconvenienceoflinguisticstudyisthatyoucanfindtherawmaterialsforlinguisticseverywhereinthelanguageuse.Trytothinkofmoreexamplesfromyourownlanguagepracticetounderstandandexplaintheoriesandconceptsconcerned.Theapplicationoftheoryintopracticecansharpenyourunderstandingabouttheoryitself.CombinationofReadingandExercises閱讀與練習(xí)相結(jié)合Thepurposeofthecourse,besidesbasicknowledgeaboutlinguistics,aimsattheapplicationofthemethodsandtheories.Thus,exercisesandtestsassesstheunderstandingoftheknowledge,butnotstudyinordertositinatest.Doreadthetextbeforecomingtotheclass.Don’tturntotheChinesetranslationimmediatelywithoutreadingtheEnglishtextsHistoryofLinguisticsAlthoughtheformalstudyoflanguagedatesfromatleastthemiddleofthefirstmillenniumBCinIndiaandancientGreece,theeraofscientificlanguagestudyiscommonlydatedfromtheendofthe18c,whenEnglishwasdiscoveredtohavethesameancestorasanumberofEuropeanandAsianlanguages.ThisdiscoveryinitiatedatleastacenturyofintenseinterestinCOMPARATIVEPHILOLOGY,whichinvolveduncoveringlinksbetweenlanguages,writingcomparativegrammarsofrelatedlanguages,andreconstructingtheircommon“ancestors”.HistoryofLinguisticsTheseactivitiesstimulatedasearchforthemechanismsunderlyingLANGUAGECHANGE.Inthe20thcentury,achangeofemphasisoccurred,largelythroughtheworkoftheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure,sometimesregardedas“thefatherofmodernlinguistics”.HeadvocatedseparatingDIACHRONIC(historical)fromSYNCRONIC(contemporaryorco-occurring)aspectsoflanguagestudy.HistoryofLinguisticsMidwaythroughthe20thcentury,NoamChomskytriggeredanotherchangeofdirection,whenheinvestigatedworkingenerativelinguistics,aconcernfortheprinciplesinthemindsofspeakerswhichcouldgeneratelanguage(accountfortheirknowledgeoflanguageinanexplicitway).

（劉潤清，2002，《西方語言學(xué)流派》，外語教學(xué)與研究出版社。）Chapter1.Introduction

1.Whatislanguage?EdwardSapir’sdefinition(1921)“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”R.A.Hall’sdefinition(1968)Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”NoamChomsky’sdefinition(1957)“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”Languageisasystem.Systematicrule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.Languageisarbitrary.Arbitrarynointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Languageissymbolicinnature.Symbolicwordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.

“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.”

ShakespeareLanguageishuman-specific.Human-specificdifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage

(CharlesHockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionDuality(doublearticulation)Lowerlevelsounds(meaningless)Higherlevelmeaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.CulturalTransmissionLanguageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).

Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.TheOriginofLanguage人們一直在探討人類語言最初從何處以及怎樣發(fā)展起來的這類問題，

不過幾乎沒有什么事實(shí)證據(jù)來證實(shí)語言的確切起源，因為人類語言也許和人類一樣古老，

而書面記錄的材料只可以追溯到大約四千年前。學(xué)者們對動物交際的某些形式進(jìn)行類推、對兒童學(xué)習(xí)和掌握語言的過程以及對“原始”語言進(jìn)行類推，企圖從中探明語言的起源，許多人對此提出了不同的假設(shè)性的解釋：

TheOriginofLanguage

Thedivine-origintheoryLanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.Theinventiontheoryimitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.Theevolutionarytheorytheresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.TheOriginofLanguage1.Thebow-wowtheory（汪汪理論）Peopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironment.2.Thepooh-poohtheory（噗噗理論）Ourprimitiveancestorsutteredinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.3.Theyo-he-hotheory（喲—嗬喲理論）Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedrhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.TheOriginofLanguage1）繆勒（M.Muller,1823-1900）提出“本能論”（ding-dongtheoryornativistictheory），認(rèn)為聲音和意義之間有神秘的關(guān)聯(lián)：人類語言是從原始人用聲音來表示所遇到的事件這一過程中發(fā)展起來的。2）

葉斯柏森（1660-1943）認(rèn)為，語言是從原始儲藏式不清楚的贊歌中發(fā)展起來的（sing-songtheory唱歌說）。3）格雷（L.H.Gray,1875-1955）提出“感嘆說”（pooh-poohorexclamation,interjectionaltheory）。該假說把語言的起源歸結(jié)為表達(dá)感情的種種感嘆語詞。TheOriginofLanguage4）諾瓦雷（L.Noire,1847-1889）以在繁重勞動中發(fā)出的喊聲來解釋語言的起源，即所謂“喊聲說”（yo-he-hotheory）。5）帕杰特（R,Paget,1869-1955）認(rèn)為，語言是從某些手勢和舌頭動作的結(jié)合中發(fā)展起來的（ta-tatheory達(dá)達(dá)說）?！皠游锝新曊f”（animalcrytheory）、“摹聲說”（bow-wow,cuckoo,animalcryonomatopoeic,heynonny-nonnytheory）等。6)Marxistview:languagewascreatedintheprocessofworking.FunctionsofLanguageThetermcommunicationcanbeusedtocovermostofthefunctionoflanguage.Butthefunctionoflanguageisvaried.FunctionsofLanguageJacobsondefinedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,context.Correspondingtothesefactors,heestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctions:Referentialtoconveymessageandinformation(context)Poetictoindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake(message)Emotivetoexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions(addresser)Conativetopersuadeandinfluenceotherthroughcommandsandentreaties(addressee)Phatictoestablishcommunionwithothers(contact)Metalingualtoclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings(code)FunctionsofLanguageM.A.K.Halliday’sSummaryoftheFunctionsofLanguage:1)

informative:function2)

interpersonalfunction3)

performativefunction4)

emotivefunction5)

phaticcommunion6)

recreationalfunction7)

metalingualfunctionFunctionsofLanguage

Phatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.Directive:getthehearertodosomething.Informative:giveinformationaboutfacts.Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.Expressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)Performative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.

許國璋先生認(rèn)為把語言定義成交際工具不夠科學(xué),至少不夠嚴(yán)謹(jǐn).他對語言的定義做了如下概括:語言是一種符號系統(tǒng).當(dāng)它作用于人與人之間的關(guān)系的時候,它是表達(dá)相互反應(yīng)的中介;當(dāng)它作用于人與客觀世界的關(guān)系的時候,它是認(rèn)知事物的工具;當(dāng)它作用于文化的時候,它是文化的載體.2.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.

Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies:Exhaustiveness/adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity

ThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsTheoreticallinguistics(micro-linguistics)PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsUseoflinguistics(macro-linguistics)AppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics……TheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsspeechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.PhonologysoundpatternsoflanguagesMorphologytheformofwordsSyntaxtherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semanticsthemeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageusePragmatics)UseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticslinguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguisticssocialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusePsycholinguisticslinguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylisticslinguisticandliteratureSomeotherapplicationsAnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation;artificialintelligence)SomeImportantDistinctionsinLinguisticsDescriptivevsPrescriptiveDescriptivedescribe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptivelaydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)SynchronicvsDiachronicSynchronicstudydescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)

Diachronicstudydescriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)

SpeechvsWritingSpeechprimarymediumoflanguageWritinglaterdevelopedLanguevsParole(F.deSaussure)Languetheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Paroletherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.CompetenceandPerformance(Chomsky)Competencetheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.TraditionalGrammarvsModernLinguisticsTraditionalgrammarprescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkModernlinguisticsdescriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframeworkChapter2Phonology

Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsoundssoundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Phonetics

Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.[p]:bilabial,stop.

ThreebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphoneticsfromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphoneticsfromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphoneticsfromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.ArticulatoryphoneticsSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngealcavitythethroat;Theoralcavitythemouth;Nasalcavitythenose.ThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavityOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsAstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscriptionusedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clear[l],[pit]Narrowtranscriptionusedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.dark[l],aspirated[p]Somemajorarticulatoryvariablesdimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:Voicingvoiced&voicelessNasalitynasal&non-nasalAspirationaspirated&unaspirated

ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsEnglishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:VowelsConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheair-streammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.ClassificationofConsonantsEnglishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulationTheMannerofArticulationstops/plosives:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];fricatives:[f],[v],[s],[z],[W],[T],[F],[V],[h];affricates:[tF],[dV];

liquids:[l](lateral),[r];nasals:[m],[n],[N];

glides/semivowels:[w],[j].ThePlaceofArticulationbilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w];labiodental:[f],[v];dental:[W],[T];alveolar:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];palatal:[F],[V],[tF],[dV],[j];velar:[k],[g],[N];

glottal:[h].ThePlaceofArticulationBilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.TheDescriptionofEnglishConsonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelarGlottalStopsorplosivesVL[p][t][k]VD[b][d][g]Frica-tivesVL[f][W][s][F][h]VD[v][T][z][V]Affri-catesVL([tF])[tF]VD([dV])[dV]NasalsVD[m][n][N]LiquidsVD[l],[r]GlidesVD[w][j]ClassificationofVowelsEnglishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:Monophthongsorpure/singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels

MonophthongsorPure/SingleVowelsAccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:frontvowels:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B];centralvowels:[E:],[E],[Q];backvowels:[u:],[u],[C:],[C],[B:].Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth:Close:[I:],[I],[u:],[u].Semi-close:[e],[E:];Semi-open:[E],[C];Open:[A],[B],[C],[B:],[Q];Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsor

thedegreeofliproundingrounded:[u:],[u],[C:],[C];unrounded:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B],[E:],[E],[Q],[B:].Accordingtothelengthofthevowelslong:

[I:],[E:],[u:],[C:],[B:]short:[I],[e],[Z],[A],[E],[Q],[B],[u],[C].Diphthongs/glidingvowels[ei],[ai],[aU],[EU],[Ri],[iE],[ZE],[UE].Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeAglide:onewaryolkrushUnderlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:Africative

payhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasal

trainbangleaflimbAstop

drillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate:racksuchridgeboozeUnderlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:Acentralvowel:

madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:

reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfatherDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherPhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonetics&PhonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguagethespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophone

PhoneAphoneaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[sphIt].PhonemeAphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].AllophoneAllophonesthephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.PhonemicContrastPhonemiccontrastdifferentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].ComplementaryDistributionComplementarydistributionallophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].MinimalPairMinimalpairwhentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.SomeRulesofPhonology

SequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleSequentialRulesSequentialrulestherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.SequentialRulesIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)

thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)

thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)

thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[N]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄語……”AssimilationRuleAssimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolar[In]inconceivablevelar[IN]

inputbilabial[Im]AssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊changNa跳啊tiaowa……DeletionRuleDeletionruleittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.SuprasegmentalFeaturesSuprasegmentalfeaturesthephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonationSyllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.[mAn].Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.But[l],[n]and[m]mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.Stress

WordstressSentencestressWordStressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:

verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cord…noun:5import;5increase;5rebel;5record…WordStressSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:

compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdog…nounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dog…WordStressThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbag…doer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane…SentenceStressSentencestresstherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreasons,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.

Heisdrivingmycar.

Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.

ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.

ma媽(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma馬(thethirdrise)

ma罵(thefourthfall)Intonation

Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.”GrammaticalFunctionsofIntonationsIntonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.GrammaticalFunctionsofIntonationsb)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“Johndidn’tcomebecauseofMarry”

Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn’tcome.

Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:

“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”GrammaticalFunctionsofIntonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.

Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.GrammaticalFunctionsofIntonationsd)Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtonematter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtonepoliteness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.Chapter3Morphology

Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Openclasswordandclosedclassword

Openclasswordscontentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，時裝秀…”inChinese.Closedclasswordsgrammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaningWordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-mo