UnitoneEnvironmentalEngineering環(huán)境工程Whatisthisbookabout？這本書是關(guān)于什么？Theobjectiveofthisbookistointroduceengineeringandsciencestudentstotheinterdisciplinarystudyofenvironmentproblems；theircause，whytheyareofconcern，andhowwecancontrolthem.Thebookincludes:這本書目標(biāo)是使理工科學(xué)生了解跨學(xué)科間研究環(huán)境問(wèn)題;它們起因，為何它們受到關(guān)注，以及我們?cè)鯓涌刂扑鼈?。這本書包含：Descriptionofwhatismeantbyenvironmentandenvironmentalsystems描述環(huán)境和環(huán)境系統(tǒng)意味著什么Informationonthebasiccausesofenvironmentaldisturbances關(guān)于引發(fā)環(huán)境干擾基礎(chǔ)原因基本信息Basicscientificknowledgenecessarytounderstandthenatureofenvironmentalproblemsandtobeabletoquantifythem了解環(huán)境問(wèn)題本質(zhì)，并能夠定量計(jì)算它們所必要基本科學(xué)知識(shí)Currentstateofthetechnologyofenvironmentalcontrolinitsapplicationtowater，airandpollutionproblems現(xiàn)在適適用于水，空氣和環(huán)境污染問(wèn)題環(huán)境控制技術(shù)現(xiàn)實(shí)狀況Considerablegapsinourcurrentscientificknowledgeofunderstandingandcontrollingmanyofthecomplexinteractionsbetweenhumanactivitiesandnature我們現(xiàn)在科學(xué)知識(shí)在了解和控制人類活動(dòng)和自然之間復(fù)雜相互作用科學(xué)知識(shí)上存在相當(dāng)大缺點(diǎn)Manyenvironmentalproblemswhichcouldbeeliminatedorreducedbytheapplicationofcurrenttechnology，butwhicharenotdealtwithbecauseofsociety’slackofwilltodoso，orinmanyinstancebecauseofalackofresourcestodoso.許多環(huán)境問(wèn)題能夠應(yīng)用現(xiàn)有技術(shù)消除或降低，但沒(méi)有得四處理是因?yàn)樯鐣?huì)缺乏這么做意愿，或者像許多例子那樣因?yàn)槿狈Y源。Someimportantdefinitions一些主要定義Wheretheyarefirstusedinthisbook，definitionsareintroducedinblockform，asshownhere，orprintedinboldtype.假如他們是第一次使用這本書，定義介紹采取塊形式，像這里顯示一樣，或印成黑體字。Environmentisthephysicalandbiotichabitatwhichsurroundsus；thatwhichwecansee，hear，touch，smell，andtaste.環(huán)境是圍繞在我們周圍物質(zhì)生命棲息地，在那里我們能夠看到，聽(tīng)到，觸到，聞到和品嘗到。System，accordingtowebster’sdictionary，isdefinedas“asetorarrangementofthingssorelatedorconnectedastoformaunitororganicwhole；as，asolarsystem，irrigationsystem，supplysystem，theworldoruniverse”.系統(tǒng)，依據(jù)韋伯斯特字典，被定義為“一組或一系列能形成一個(gè)整體或者有機(jī)整體相互關(guān)聯(lián)事物;比如，太陽(yáng)系統(tǒng)，澆灌系統(tǒng)，供水系統(tǒng)，世界或宇宙”。Pollutioncanbedefinedasanundesirablechangeinthephysical，chemical，orbiologicalcharacteristicsoftheair，water，orlandthatcanharmfullyaffectthehealth，survival，oractivitiesofhumansorotherlivingorganisms.污染能夠被定義為有害影響健康，生存，活動(dòng)人或其它生物體空氣，水，或土地物理，化學(xué)或生物特征不應(yīng)該有改變，。Whenthegoalofimprovingenvironmentalquanlityistakentobeimprovinghumanwellbeing，theword“environment”broadenstoincludeallkindsofsocial，economic，andculturalaspects.Suchbroadnessisunworkableinmanyrealsituationsandimpracticalinatextbookdesignedforaonesemestercourse.Ourexaminationofenvironmentalproblemsisthereforelimitedbyourdefinitionof“environment”.當(dāng)改進(jìn)環(huán)境質(zhì)量目標(biāo)是用來(lái)改進(jìn)人類福祉，“環(huán)境”這個(gè)詞擴(kuò)大到包含社會(huì)，經(jīng)濟(jì)，文化等全部方面內(nèi)容。這種擴(kuò)大化在許多實(shí)際情況下是不可行，在本被設(shè)計(jì)為一學(xué)期課程教科書中也是不切實(shí)際。所以，我們對(duì)環(huán)境問(wèn)題考查限于我們定義“環(huán)境”。InteractionofSystems互動(dòng)系統(tǒng)Anumberofdifferentenvironmentalproblemsareassociatedwithwater,air,orlandsystems.許多不一樣環(huán)境問(wèn)題都包括到水，空氣，或土壤。Manyoftheseproblemswillapplyonlywithinoneofthesesystems,justifyingthebreakdownintothesecategories.許多這些問(wèn)題只適適用于在其中一個(gè)系統(tǒng)，這為這些種類中細(xì)目分類提供了充分理由。Suchaclassificationisalsousefulforeasiercomprehensionofrelatedproblemswithinonesystem.這種分類也有利于更輕易了解一個(gè)系統(tǒng)里相關(guān)問(wèn)題。Moreover,itissensiblebecause,formanagerandadministrativereasons,suchsubfieldsasairpollution,watersupply,wastewaterdisposal,andsolidwastedisposalareoftendealtwithseparatelybygovernmentalagencies.另外，這么做是明智，因?yàn)槭切姓芾碓颍諝馕廴?，水供給，固體廢物處置和廢水處理，往往是由政府機(jī)構(gòu)分別處理。Unfortunately,manyimportantenvironmentalproblemsarenotconfinedtoanair,water,orlandsystem,butinvolveinteractionsbetweensystems.很遺憾是，許多主要環(huán)境問(wèn)題不只局限于一個(gè)空氣，水，或土壤系統(tǒng)，更包括系統(tǒng)之間相互作用。Acurrentexampleistheacidrainproblemstemmingfromtheemissionofsulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxidegasesintotheatmospherefromthestacksofgeneratingstations,smelters,andautomobileexhausts?，F(xiàn)在一個(gè)例子是酸雨問(wèn)題，根源是許多發(fā)電站，冶煉，汽車排出廢氣中進(jìn)入大氣二氧化硫和氮氧化物氣體。Thesegasesarethentransportedbyaircurrentsoverwideregions.這些氣體被氣流運(yùn)輸?shù)綄拸V區(qū)域。Rainfall“washesthemout”,creatingacidrainwhichisharmfultoaquaticlife,forests,andagriculturalcrops.雨水“將它們洗去”，產(chǎn)生了對(duì)水生生物，森林和農(nóng)作物有害酸雨。Twoexamplesofinteractionbetweensystemsthatcausemajorenvironmentaldisturbancesarepresented-thebuildupofatmosphericcarbondioxide,aglobalproblem,andtheacidrainproblem,normallyofregionalnature.兩個(gè)關(guān)于于系統(tǒng)間相互作用引發(fā)環(huán)境問(wèn)題有：空氣中二氧化碳增加全球性問(wèn)題以及具備地域性質(zhì)酸雨問(wèn)題。EnvironmentalDisturbances環(huán)境擾亂Manymajorimprovementstoourstandardoflivingcanbeattributedtotheapplicationofscienceandtechnology.我們生活水平許多重大改進(jìn)，能夠歸因于科學(xué)和技術(shù)應(yīng)用。Afewexamplesarenotedhere.Canyouthinkofothers?這里舉幾個(gè)例子，你能夠想到其余例子嗎？●Theproductionofmoreandbetterqualityfood生產(chǎn)更多愈加好優(yōu)質(zhì)食品●Thecreationofhousingasprotectionfromextremesfromclimatesandaslivingspace創(chuàng)造能防止極端氣候保護(hù)所和生活空間●Thebuildingoffastandreliablemeansoftransportation建設(shè)快速和可靠運(yùn)輸方式●Theinventionofvarioussystemsofcommunication創(chuàng)造各種通信系統(tǒng)●Theinventionofmachinestoreplacehumanoranimalpower創(chuàng)造機(jī)器來(lái)取代人類或動(dòng)物體力●Thesupplyofsafewaterandthedisposalofwastes安全水供給和廢物處理●Theeliminationofmanyinfectiousdiseases消亡多個(gè)傳染疾病●Theeliminationofmostwaterbornediseasesinthedevelopedworldthroughimprovedwatertechnology在多數(shù)發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家中經(jīng)過(guò)改進(jìn)水技術(shù)來(lái)消除大部分水源性疾病●Theavailabilityofleisuretimethroughgreaterproductivity,providingtheopportunityforculturalandrecreationalactivities經(jīng)過(guò)提升生產(chǎn)力，騰出閑暇時(shí)間，為進(jìn)行文化和娛樂(lè)活動(dòng)提供機(jī)會(huì)●Theprotectionfromtheworsteffectsofnaturaldisasterssuchasfloods,droughts,earthquakes,andvolcaniceruptions.預(yù)防最嚴(yán)重自然災(zāi)害影響，如洪水，干旱，地震和火山暴發(fā)Withtheseimprovements,however,havecomedisturbingsideeffects,suchaslostarableland,disappearingforests,environmentalpollution,andneworganismsresistanttocontrols.然而,伴隨(科學(xué)技術(shù))發(fā)展,產(chǎn)生了不良副作用,比如,可耕地丟失,森林消失,環(huán)境污染,微生物滋長(zhǎng).Manyeffectsoriginallyconsideredtobejustnuisancesarenowrecognizedaspotentialthreatstonatureandtohumans.起初只是讓我們以為討厭許多事物現(xiàn)在被認(rèn)為對(duì)自然和人類存在潛在威脅。Inanagrariansociety,peoplelivedessentiallyinharmonywithmature,raisingfood,gatheringfirewood,andmakingclothingandtoolsfromtheland.在農(nóng)業(yè)社會(huì)，人們基本上能與自然友好地相處,他們?cè)陉懙厣戏N植食物,搜集木材,做衣服和工具。Thewastesfromanimalsandhumanswerereturnedtothesoilasfertilizer.Few,ifany,problemsofwater,land,orairpollutionoccurred.動(dòng)物和人類排放廢物作為肥料又返到土地中。極少有水污染、土地污染、和空氣污染問(wèn)題產(chǎn)生。Thecitiesofancienttimes,particularlythoseoftheRomanEmpire,hadsystemstosupplywaterandtodisposeofwastes.在古代城市，尤其是像羅馬帝國(guó)那類，就已經(jīng)存在供水系統(tǒng)和處置廢物系統(tǒng)。TheaqueductssupplyingtheancientcityofRome(populationabout1million)withsafewaterfromtheCloacaMaxima,thebestknownandoneoftheearliestsewerstobebuilt,areexamplesofsuchsystems.從一個(gè)最早建成之一且最有名污水管-----古羅馬大排泄溝，向古代羅馬城市提供安全水渠道，就是這么系統(tǒng)例子。ThemunicipaltechnologyofancientcitiesseemstohavebeenforgottenformanycenturiesbythosewhobuiltcitiesthroughoutEurope.古代城市市政技術(shù)似乎已經(jīng)被那些在整個(gè)歐洲建設(shè)城市人遺忘了許多個(gè)世紀(jì)。Watersupplyandwastedisposalwereneglected,resultinginmanyoutbreaksofthenineteenthcentury,itwasnotrealizedthatimproperwastesdisposalpollutedwatersupplieswithdisease-carryingorganisms.供水和廢物處置忽略，造成暴發(fā)了許多疾病，如痢疾、霍亂、傷寒和其它水傳染疾病。Theindustrialrevolutioninnineteenth-centuryBritain,Europe,andNorthAmericaaggravatedtheenvironmentalproblemssinceitbroughtincreasedurbanization.直到19世紀(jì)中期，人們才意識(shí)到廢物不正確處置造成引發(fā)疾病微生物污染了供水。Bothphenomena,urbanizationandindustrialization,wereandarefundamentalcauseofwaterandairpollutionwhichthecitiesofthattimewereunabletohandle.19世紀(jì)在英國(guó)、歐洲和北美工業(yè)革命帶來(lái)了工業(yè)化和城市化增加，也加重了環(huán)境問(wèn)題。城市化和工業(yè)化在過(guò)去和現(xiàn)在都是引發(fā)水和空氣污染根本原因，這在當(dāng)初城市還不能夠處理。Rapidadvancesintechnologyforthetreatmentofwaterandthepartialtreatmentofwastewatertookplaceinthedevelopedcountriesoverthenextfewdecades.Thisledtoadramaticdecreaseintheincidenceofwaterbornediseases.在接下來(lái)幾十年，水處理和廢水部分處理技術(shù)在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家快速發(fā)展，這造成水傳染疾病發(fā)生率大量地降低。Notethatallwastesdischargeintoenvironment,andthuspolluteoutwater,air,andlandsystem.注意，全部廢物排放到環(huán)境中都會(huì)污染我們水、空氣和土地系統(tǒng)。UnitTwoHistoricalOverviewofHazardousSubstanceDisposalintheUSA回顧美國(guó)處置危險(xiǎn)物品歷史HazardoussubstancedisposalpracticesintheUnitedStateshavetraveledfullcircle.在美國(guó)，處理危險(xiǎn)物品做法走過(guò)了迂回道路。Priorto1978therewerefewifanyregulationsregardingthedisposalofthesematerials.1978年之前，極少有任何關(guān)于怎樣處置這些物品法規(guī)。Improperdisposalofmanyofthesechemicalsresultedinhealthproblemsformanycitizens,contaminatedwatersupplies,anddestructionofwildlife.這些化學(xué)物品不妥處置使市民陷入健康問(wèn)題，水供給受污染和野生生物死亡。WiththeenactmentoftheResourceConservationandRecoveryAct(RCRA)of1978,manufacturingfacilitiesnowhaveanobligationtoaccountforallwastematerialsthataregeneratedbythefacility.伴隨《資源回收法》（1978年）頒布，工廠有責(zé)任處置生產(chǎn)設(shè)施所產(chǎn)生全部廢棄材料。ImplementationofRCRAhasbeenslow.不過(guò)《資源回收法》實(shí)施一直進(jìn)展遲緩。FromtheveryearlyindustrialperiodintheUnitedStates,whichstartedabout1920,untilseveralyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar,therewaslittleconcernforthepropermethodsofdisposalofwastematerialsthatweregeneratedasby-productsduringmanufacturingprocesses.在美國(guó)，從大約19開(kāi)始早期工業(yè)時(shí)代，到第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后幾年里，幾乎沒(méi)人關(guān)注處理在生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中作為副產(chǎn)品產(chǎn)生廢棄材料合理方法。Upuntilthe1960’sitwasquitecommontofindfreshwaterriversandstreamsfouledwithwastechemicalsfrommanufacturing,saltwaterfromoilproductionwellsandwasteacidsfromsteelmillactivities.Virtuallyeveryconceivablewasteoil,solvent,orresinwastecouldbefoundintherivers.實(shí)際上，全部能夠想象到廢物如廢油、溶劑、廢樹(shù)脂都能夠在河流里面找到。Thelawsofthetimewereeithernon-existentornotenforced.然而當(dāng)初相關(guān)法律要么不存在，要么是沒(méi)有被實(shí)施。Theliteraturehasmanyexamplesofhealthproblemsofindividualsaswellasdestructionoffishandwildlifehabitat.文件記載了許多關(guān)于個(gè)體健康問(wèn)題以及魚類、野生動(dòng)物棲息地被破壞例子。Manyothercasesoccurredthatwerenotreportedintheliterature.許多其余發(fā)生事件并未記載在文件上。Otherwastematerialsweredumpedhaphazardlyinmakeshiftexcavationseitheratthefactorysideorthroughoutthecountryside.其余廢棄物質(zhì)被草率地埋在暫時(shí)挖掘在工廠還有鄉(xiāng)村旁邊坑洞里面。Becauseofignoranceandlackofeconomicincentivestodoso,thefactoriesmadenoattempttopreventcontaminationofundergroundwatersuppliesbythechemicalsthatweredisposedof.因?yàn)閷?duì)環(huán)境無(wú)視以及缺乏經(jīng)濟(jì)刺激，各企業(yè)完全沒(méi)有意識(shí)來(lái)保護(hù)被化學(xué)物質(zhì)污染地下水供給。Infact,knowledgeablescientistsofthetimeacceptedlandirrigationandpercolationintotheporousundergroundformationsasmethodsofwastetreatment.實(shí)際上，當(dāng)代有見(jiàn)識(shí)科學(xué)家，已經(jīng)接收了土地清洗以及過(guò)濾可滲透地底層這兩種可作為處理廢棄物治理方法。Althoughthesetreatmentmethodsmayhavebeenintendedfornon-hazardousmaterials,theywereemployedforhazardousmaterialsaswell.盡管這些治理方法或許用于無(wú)毒害物質(zhì)，同時(shí)也可用于有毒害物質(zhì)。Again,therewerenogovernmentalregulationsprotectingtheundergroundaquifersfromthesepractices.再者，并沒(méi)有政府法規(guī)因保護(hù)地下蓄水層而禁止這些處理方法。TheproblemofdisposalofhazardouschemicalsdidnotimprovewiththecreationoftheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)inthe1996.處理有毒化學(xué)物品問(wèn)題并沒(méi)有因?yàn)樵?996年環(huán)境保護(hù)局成立而有所改進(jìn)。Thefirsttaskofthenewagencywastocleanupriversandstreams.此新興機(jī)構(gòu)首要任務(wù)是清理潔凈河流水道。Unfortunately,nooneinpowerinthegovernmentatthetimehadinsightintotheproblemsthatweretobecreatedbythenewagency.不幸是，當(dāng)初政府執(zhí)政人員沒(méi)有一個(gè)洞察到那個(gè)新興機(jī)構(gòu)帶來(lái)問(wèn)題。TheEPAwasquitesuccessfulinthoseearlydaysintheenforcementofthemanywaterpollutionlawsthatevolved.環(huán)境保護(hù)局在早些年時(shí)候，對(duì)于強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行污染法發(fā)展還是做相當(dāng)成功。Asthepracticeofthedumpingofhazardousmaterialsintotheriversandstreamswaseliminated,thosesamematerialscreatedotherdisposalproblems.伴隨往河道排放有毒物質(zhì)習(xí)慣消除，但這些相同物質(zhì)造成了其余處理問(wèn)題。Manyofthechemicalssavedfromthesewerwereeitherworthlessorofsuchalowvalueastorenderrecoveryuneconomical.在下水道中回收到物質(zhì)不是沒(méi)價(jià)值就是低廉到不足以恢復(fù)利用.Insomecases,recoverywastechnicallyimpossible.Asaresult,thewastechemicalsweredisposedofbyanyconvenientmethod.一些情況下,回收在技術(shù)層面上是不可能.所以,很多廢棄化學(xué)藥品都被很簡(jiǎn)單地扔掉了.Themakeshiftdumpssiteswereexpanded.Becausetherewerenoregulationsregardingdisposal,暫時(shí)垃圾場(chǎng)已經(jīng)不得不擴(kuò)大,因?yàn)闆](méi)有任何關(guān)于廢物丟棄法規(guī).personswithnotechnicalexpertiseenteredintothebusinessofwastedisposal.Theprofitswerehighbecausetheseindividualsdidnottreatthechemicals.很多不具備專業(yè)技術(shù)知識(shí)人就進(jìn)入了廢物處理行業(yè),因?yàn)檫@些人并沒(méi)有真正處理掉化學(xué)藥品，所以這個(gè)行業(yè)利潤(rùn)相當(dāng)高。Inmostcases,thewastematerialsweretransportedtoimpoundingareaslocatedonprivatelyownedland.很多情況下,廢棄化學(xué)物品會(huì)被運(yùn)到私有土地上貯物地.Thefactoriesthatgeneratedthewastefeltsecureinthebeliefthatthewastetransporterwasdisposingofthematerialsinanacceptablemanner.那些產(chǎn)生廢棄物廠家之所以感到安心是因?yàn)樗麄兿嘈艔U物處理者會(huì)用一個(gè)合理方法來(lái)處置掉廢物.Inmostcases,thiswasnotacorrectassumption.但很多情況下,事實(shí)并非如此.Theunregulateddumpsgrewbothinsizeandcomplexity.亂堆放大小規(guī)模和復(fù)雜度上都在增加.Whenthedumpswereincloseproximitytopopulatedareasorpublicwatersupplies,aseriesofproblemsbegintodevelop.當(dāng)垃圾場(chǎng)很靠近居住區(qū)或公共水源話,一系列問(wèn)題將會(huì)開(kāi)始產(chǎn)生.Citizensinthevicinityofsomeofthedumpsbegantoexperienceadversehealthproblemssuchasskinrashes,paralysis,cancer,andbirthdefects.在一些垃圾場(chǎng)附近居民會(huì)開(kāi)始碰到一些像皮膚疹.麻痹.癌癥.先天缺點(diǎn)等不利健康問(wèn)題.Insomecases,theseproblemshavebeenattributedtocontaminationfromthechemicals.有時(shí)候,這些問(wèn)題會(huì)歸屬于受到化學(xué)藥品污染而產(chǎn)生.Becauseoftheseconcerns,theUnitedStatesCongressenactedanewlegislationthatdealtwiththeissuesofdisposalofhazardouswastes.因?yàn)檫@些擔(dān)心，美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)經(jīng)過(guò)了一個(gè)新處理有害廢物過(guò)程中出現(xiàn)問(wèn)題法規(guī)。ThiswastheResourceConversationandRecoveryActof1987.這就是1987年資源回收保護(hù)法。ThepurposeoftheActwastoallowregulationofhazardoussubstancedisposal.這項(xiàng)法案目標(biāo)是同意有害物質(zhì)處理方法。Asaresult,industriesthatgeneratedlargequantitiesofthesewastematerialsnowhadtoensurethatthematerialsweredisposedofintheamannerthatwassafefortheenvironment.結(jié)果造成產(chǎn)生大量廢物企業(yè)現(xiàn)在不得不確保這些物質(zhì)被以對(duì)環(huán)境安全方法處理。ManyoftheimproperdumpsthatwerecreatedpriortotheRCRAlegislationwerecreatedbypersonswithlittleornofinancialresources.在資源回收保護(hù)法由極少或者沒(méi)有經(jīng)濟(jì)資源人確立之前，很多不合理堆放已經(jīng)造成。Asaresult,thecleanupoftheoldsiteshasbeentakenoverbythegovernmentunderlegislation.使得清理舊堆放點(diǎn)工作由政府接管。Asofthistime,theresultsofthesecleanupeffortshavebeenineffective.在這一時(shí)期，這些清理努力效率不高。Becauseoftheabusesandproblemsofthepast,regulationshavebeenenactedthatforceAmericanindustrytoberesponsibleforhazardouswastedisposal.因?yàn)檫^(guò)去這些問(wèn)題，強(qiáng)制美國(guó)工業(yè)負(fù)擔(dān)有害物質(zhì)處理責(zé)任相關(guān)法規(guī)已經(jīng)頒布。Theproblemswerebroughtaboutbyalackofeconomicindentivestotheindustrialcommunity.這些問(wèn)題是由對(duì)工業(yè)界缺乏經(jīng)濟(jì)動(dòng)力帶來(lái)。Theproblemswerecompoundedbytheinexperienceandlackofinsightbyelectedgovernmentalofficialsandthegovernmentalagencieschargedwiththetaskofregulation.政府官員缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)和洞察力以及政府機(jī)構(gòu)對(duì)法規(guī)控制任務(wù)使得問(wèn)題復(fù)雜化。Althoughsufficientlegislationisnowinplacetosolvetheproblemofhazardouswastedisposal,itisunlikelythatatruesolutionwillbeachievedfor20yearsorlonger.盡管現(xiàn)在有足夠法規(guī)來(lái)處理有害物質(zhì)處理問(wèn)題，不過(guò)在二十年或更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間內(nèi)是不可能真正處理。Onlythroughinteractionbetweenindustryscientists,andgovernmentregulatorswilltruesolutionsbefinallyrealized.只有經(jīng)過(guò)工業(yè)界，科學(xué)家和政府部門共同努力，才能最終得到處理。Unit3WhatisWasteReduction/WasteMinimization?什么是廢物減量化，廢物最少化AgreatamountoftimehasbeenspentintheU.S.discussingtheterminologyofsuchwordsassourcereduction,wasteminimization,recyclingandpollutionprevention.EPAhasprovidedthefollowingdefinitions.美國(guó)花費(fèi)了大量時(shí)間在討論像資源減量化，廢物最小化，循環(huán)和阻止污染這些術(shù)語(yǔ)上，EPA已經(jīng)提供了以下定義。Sourcereduction:Anyactionthatreducestheamountofwasteexitingaprocess.資源減量化：降低在于一個(gè)過(guò)程中大量廢物任何行為。Thisincludes,forexample,processchanges,feedstockchanges,improvedhousekeeping/management,andin-processrecycling.它包含，比如，過(guò)程調(diào)整，原料調(diào)整，提升管理和回收內(nèi)在循環(huán)。Wasteminimization:Thereductiontotheextentfeasible,ofwastethatisgeneratedorsubsequentlytreated,stored,ordisposedof.廢物最少化：產(chǎn)生廢物最大程度降低，然后處理，存放，或者處置。Itincludesanysourcereductionorrecyclingactivityofwasteorthereductioninthetoxicityofwaste(orboth)aslongasthereductionisconsistentwiththegoalofminimizationofpresentandfuturethreatstohumanhealthandtheenvironment.它包含了被造成了只要減量化與現(xiàn)在或未來(lái)威脅到人類健康和環(huán)境最小化目標(biāo)一致總?cè)萘炕驈U物數(shù)量降低或者廢物毒性降低，或者兩方面兼?zhèn)浒l(fā)生器負(fù)擔(dān)任何資源減量化或循環(huán)活動(dòng)。Recycling:Theuseorreuseofawasteasasubstituteforacommercialproductorasafeedstocktoanindustrialprocess.回收：作為一個(gè)商業(yè)產(chǎn)品代替品，或作為一個(gè)工業(yè)過(guò)程原料利用或再利用。Thisincludestheon-oroff-sitereclamationofusefulfractionsofawasteortheremovalofcontaminantsfromawastetoallowreuse.它包含了廢物有用小部分或來(lái)自允許再用去除了污染物廢物在現(xiàn)場(chǎng)或離開(kāi)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)回收利用。Pollutionprevention:Pollutionmaybegeneratedduringmanufacturing,orwhencertainproductsareusedcommerciallyorbyconsumers.污染預(yù)防：污染可能在生產(chǎn)過(guò)程之中產(chǎn)生，或者在當(dāng)一個(gè)產(chǎn)品被用作商業(yè)用途或被消費(fèi)者使用時(shí)候產(chǎn)生。Thismaybepreventedinthreeways:changinginputs/reducingrelianceontoxicorhazardousrawmaterials;processchanges/increasingefficiency/improvedmaintenancesuchasequipmentmodifications,betterhousekeeping,in-processclosed-looprecycling;orchangingoutputs/reducingrelianceontoxicorhazardousproducts.這么可能在三個(gè)方式上被阻止：改變投入/降低依賴有毒物或有害原材料；改變過(guò)程/增加效率/提升類似設(shè)備修改維修保養(yǎng)，愈加好管理，在過(guò)程中閉環(huán)循環(huán)；或者改變產(chǎn)出/減小對(duì)有毒或者有害產(chǎn)品依賴。WiththepassageoftheHazardousandSolidWasteAmendmentstotheResourceConservationandRecoveryActin1984,theU.S.Congressestablishedanationalpolicydeclaringtheimportanceofreducingoreliminatingthegenerationofhazardouswaste.伴隨1984年危險(xiǎn)廢物和固體廢物修正案資源保護(hù)和恢復(fù)法經(jīng)過(guò)，美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)建立一個(gè)國(guó)家政策來(lái)表明回收或消除危險(xiǎn)廢物產(chǎn)生主要性。TheCongressherebydeclaresittobeanationalpolicyofUnitedStatesthatwhereverfeasible,thegenerationofhazardouswasteistobereducedoreliminatedasexpeditiouslyaspossible.美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)宣稱它是一項(xiàng)不論在美國(guó)哪里都可行國(guó)家政策，要盡可能快速地回收或消除危險(xiǎn)廢物產(chǎn)生。Wastethatisneverthelessgeneratedshouldbetreated,stored,ordisposedofsoastominimizepresentandfuturethreattohumanhealthandtheenvironment.然而產(chǎn)生廢物還是應(yīng)被處理、儲(chǔ)存或處置，從而盡可能降低現(xiàn)在和未來(lái)對(duì)人類健康和環(huán)境威脅。In1990,theU.S.CongresspassedthePollutionPreventionAct,establishingahierarchyofwastemanagementasnationalpolicy;statingthatfirstpollutionshouldbepreventedorreducedwhereverfeasible;在1990年，美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)經(jīng)過(guò)污染防治法，建立了一個(gè)全國(guó)廢物管理政策。表明第一污染應(yīng)該被預(yù)防或回收；second,wasteshouldberecycledinanenvironmentallysafemanner;第二，廢物應(yīng)該用一個(gè)環(huán)境保護(hù)安全方式進(jìn)行循環(huán)利用；third,wasteshouldbetreated;第三，廢物應(yīng)該被處理;andasalastresort,wasteshouldbedisposedoforreleasedtotheenvironment.最終，廢物應(yīng)該被除去或降解到環(huán)境。Withthepassageoftheseandotherenvironmentallaws,wasteminimizationhasbecomeanimportantoperatingphilosophyintheUnitedStates.在美國(guó)，伴隨這些和其余環(huán)境法規(guī)經(jīng)過(guò)，廢物最少化成為一個(gè)主要工作理念.WasteReduction/WasteMinimizationTechniques廢物回收/廢物最少化技術(shù)While,foranyparticularplant,wasteminimizationiscertainlyplantorsitespecific,thetechniquesusedcanbegroupedintoavarietyofmajorcategories:同時(shí)，對(duì)于一些特定工廠，廢物最少化當(dāng)然是在詳細(xì)工廠或在實(shí)地，能用技術(shù)能被分為以下主要幾類：●productchanges產(chǎn)品改變●processchanges過(guò)程改變●equipmentmodifications設(shè)備改造●operatingpractices操作訓(xùn)練●recyclingandreuse回收和再利用Inpractice,thewasteminimizationopportunitiesarelimitedonlybytheingenuityoftheplantpersonnel.在實(shí)踐中，盡可能降低廢物機(jī)會(huì)是有限，只有被工廠人員聰明才智所利用.Thetechniqueshaveapplicationsacrossthevastrangeofindustriesandmanufacturingprocess,andcanapplytobothhazardousandnonhazardouswaste.這種技術(shù)已經(jīng)被利用與大數(shù)量工業(yè)和工業(yè)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程，同時(shí)也被應(yīng)用于有危險(xiǎn)性和非危險(xiǎn)性廢物。Productchanges產(chǎn)品改變Frequently,anontoxicmaterialcanbesubstitutedforonethatistoxic.Examplesofthisarenumerous.有毒材料經(jīng)常能被無(wú)毒所代替。這么例子有很多。Lckheedsuccessfullyswitchedfromanalkalinecyanidecadmiumbathtoanacidicnon-cyanidecadmiumbath.Theplatingqualitywasequivalentandoverallcostswerereducesduetosimplifiedwastetreatmentrequired,eventhoughtheplatingchemicalscostswerehigher.洛克希德企業(yè)成功地將堿性氰化物電鍍槽轉(zhuǎn)變成酸性非氰化物電鍍槽。因?yàn)楹?jiǎn)化廢物處理需求，電鍍質(zhì)量相當(dāng)和總成本降低了，即使電鍍化學(xué)品成本較高。TheDepartmentofDefensehasbeeninvolvedintestingquiteavarietyof“safesubstitutes”toreplacehazardoussolventssuchasperchloroethylene,methylchloroform,andtrichlorotrifluoroethane,utilizedformetalcleaning.國(guó)防部一直參加測(cè)試完全不一樣“安全代替品”，以取代有害溶劑，如氯乙烯，三氯乙烷和三氟三氯乙烷，用于金屬清潔.Asaresult,someofthemaintenanceshopsarebeginningtoreplacetheirvapordegreasersandcoldsolventtankswithaqueous,biodegradablesolvents.所以，一些維修店已開(kāi)始用可生物降解溶劑取代蒸汽除油劑和冷溶劑罐。APSMaterials,Inc,generatedtwohazardouswastes,1-1-1trichloroethaneandmethanolfromcoldsolventdegreasingoperationsassociatedwiththeirplasmaspraydepositionprocess.美國(guó)物理協(xié)會(huì)材料企業(yè)在其等離子體噴霧沉淀工藝?yán)淙軇┟撝僮鬟^(guò)程中會(huì)產(chǎn)生出兩種危害性廢物，即1，1，1-三氯乙烷和甲醇。Aterpine-basedcleanerwassubstitutedforthetwohazardousmaterialsandhasproventobeanenvironmentalandeconomicsuccess.一個(gè)可用松油稀釋清潔劑被用作代替兩種危險(xiǎn)物質(zhì)，并已經(jīng)證實(shí)在環(huán)境上和經(jīng)濟(jì)上得到了成功。RikerLaboratories,a3Mpharmaceuticalplant,coatedmedicinetabletswithsolvents.萊克試驗(yàn)室，一間3M制藥工廠，在藥片上涂上溶劑。Solventemissionshadthepotentialtoexceedairpollutionlimitsforthcoming.溶劑排放物有可能已經(jīng)超出現(xiàn)有空氣污染極限。Awater-basedcoatingwasdevelopedtoreplacethesolventcoating.一個(gè)水溶性涂料被開(kāi)發(fā)用作代替溶劑涂料。Differentsprayingequipmentwasinstalledandtheproductwastestedforqualityandstability.不一樣噴霧設(shè)備已經(jīng)被安裝了，并測(cè)試了產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量和穩(wěn)定性。Testswerepositiveand24tonsofairpollutionwaspreventedannually.這些測(cè)試都是成功，每年阻止了24噸空氣污染物排放。AT&Thasagoaltoachievea100%reductionofCFC’sby1994andtoeliminatetoxicairemissionsofalltypesbytheyear.美國(guó)最大電話電信企業(yè)AT&T有一個(gè)要實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)，就是在1994年使含氯氟烴降低100%并在消除各種有毒廢氣排放物。Theyhavesubstitutedaderivativeofcitrusfruitsandotherorganiccompounds,forsolventsusedtocleanelectronicequipment;andeliminatedCFCuseincircuitboardmanufacturingprocessthroughuseoftheAT&TLowSolidFluxer.他們已經(jīng)用一個(gè)檸檬果制品和其余有機(jī)物所代替過(guò)去曾用于清潔電子設(shè)備溶劑；經(jīng)過(guò)使用AT&T低固態(tài)助焊劑取消了含氯氟烴在電路板制造工藝使用。Substitutingd-LimoneneforchlorinatedsolventsallowedXeroxtoreducetheamountofsolventsemittedtotheatmospherefromabout00poundsto17000pounds.用檸檬油精代替氯化溶劑能夠允許Xerox（施樂(lè)）溶劑排放到大氣中量從200，000鎊降低至17，000磅。Processchanges過(guò)程改變AhighpressurewaterstripoperationhasenabledXeroxtorecycle800000poundsofnickeland2millionpoundsofaluminumtubesperyear,andtoreturn160000poundsofseleniumtosuppliersforreuse.一個(gè)高壓水提取操作已經(jīng)能使Xerox（施樂(lè)）每年回收800，000磅鎳和2，000，000磅鋁管，還有退回160，000磅硒給供給商循環(huán)再用。ScottPaperCompanyhasdevelopedasystemforsourcedeductionknownas“precycling”inwhichpaperproductsarepackagesinlargerquantities,thussavingmaterialsthatwouldotherwisehavebeenwasted.造紙企業(yè)開(kāi)發(fā)了一個(gè)被稱為“預(yù)循環(huán)”資源回收系統(tǒng)，它紙產(chǎn)品被大量包裝，所以省下了那些可能要浪費(fèi)掉材料。Chevronusedtodisposeoftankbottomsinlandfills.Itnowusesacentrifugetoseparateoilfromwater;itreusedtheoilandtreatsthewaterleavingonlyasmallamountofsolidtobelandfilled(lessthan5%oftheorginalsludge).雪佛龍企業(yè)過(guò)去曾經(jīng)在填埋場(chǎng)處理罐底沉淀物。該企業(yè)現(xiàn)在是用一個(gè)離心機(jī)把油從水中分離出來(lái)；它對(duì)那些油進(jìn)行再利用而且對(duì)那些水進(jìn)行處理使得只殘留極少部分固體被填埋（少于5%原始污泥含量）。At3M’sOfficeSystemDivisionplantstemperaturecontrolcomputerhasbeenadaptedtocontrolstart-uptemperature,andhaseliminatedstart-upwasteforanannualsavingof533200dollarsinsilver,paper,solvents,andlabor.Thecapitalcostwas16000.137dollarstonsofsolidwastewereeliminated,53tonsofairpollutionwasprevented.在3M辦公系統(tǒng)分離部門，一臺(tái)溫度控制電腦已經(jīng)被應(yīng)用來(lái)控制開(kāi)啟溫度，還有那開(kāi)啟所排放廢物，在銀，紙張，溶劑和勞動(dòng)力等方面每年省下了533，200美元。它成本是被排放16，000美元處理掉137噸固體廢物，預(yù)防了53噸空氣污染物。Equipmentmodifications設(shè)備改造Equipmentmaybemodifiedtoenhancerecoveryorrecyclingoperations,toproducelesswaste,ortoimproveoperatingefficiency.設(shè)備能夠被改造以能夠提升恢復(fù)或回收操作率，產(chǎn)生更少?gòu)U物，或提升操作效率。AnExxonplantinBayway,NewJersey,installedfloatingroofson16tanksstoringthemostvolatilechemicalsusedintheplant.Afloatingroofisacoverthatrestsontheliquidchanges,thusminimizingtheformationofchemicalvaporsthathavetobeventedfromthetank.Emissionsreductionstotaled680000poundsperyear,worthmorethan00dollars.在新澤西Bayway，一個(gè)Exxon部門，在16個(gè)容器中安裝了儲(chǔ)存了在工廠中使用最有揮發(fā)性化學(xué)品浮頂。浮頂根伴隨液體水平改變而升降，所以，使必須從工廠被排放出化工蒸氣減到最小。污染物每年總降低許是680，Operatingpractices操作實(shí)踐Oftengoodhousekeepingisthekeytobetterwasteminimization.Suchpracticesasmaintainingastrictpreventivemaintenanceprogrameliminatemuchwastedmaterial.通常地，好內(nèi)部管理是廢物最少化關(guān)鍵。這么維持一個(gè)嚴(yán)密定時(shí)檢修經(jīng)驗(yàn)?zāi)軌蚪档秃芏鄰U料。Sloppyhousekeepingpracticessuchasleakingtanks,valves,orpumpsmaycauseprocesschemicalstospillrequiringcleanupanddisposal.散漫內(nèi)部管理習(xí)慣如儲(chǔ)罐，閥門，或泵泄漏，可能造成處理化學(xué)制品溢出而需要采取凈化和處理方法。Poorcleaningofpartsorinadequatedropouttimewillreducetheusefulnessoftheprocesschemicals,increasethecostofwastedisposal,andthecostofchemicalreplacement.不夠潔凈或不充分洗液時(shí)間將降低處理化學(xué)制品有用性，增加廢物處理費(fèi)用和化工替換費(fèi)用。Improvingmaterialsreceiving,storage,andhandlingpracticesareneededinsomeplantssothatmaterialsarenot“wasted”beforeuse.在一些部門中提升材料接收，儲(chǔ)存和操作實(shí)踐，材料在沒(méi)有使用之前就不是“廢物”了。Educatingemployeessothatequipmentisusedcorrectlyisimportant.Forexample,operatortrainingonproperpaintingspraytechniquesmayofferuntoldbenefits.對(duì)于教育工作者設(shè)備能正確使用是很主要，比如，操作者適當(dāng)?shù)乩脟婌F技術(shù)可能會(huì)有意想不到收獲。Purchasingandinventorypracticesmayneedimprovement.Rawmaterialsthatlosetheirusefulnessbecausetheysitontheshelftoolongbecomewaste.Havingagreementswithsupplierstorecyclecontainers,uselesspackaging,ect.,mayreducethesolidwasteofthecompany.采購(gòu)和倉(cāng)庫(kù)里管理可能需要改進(jìn)。原材料因?yàn)榇娣旁诩茏由咸L(zhǎng)時(shí)間失去了它們本身使用價(jià)值，從而變成了廢物。和供銷商達(dá)成協(xié)議去回收容器，使用少用包裝等等，都能夠降低固體廢物在工廠里產(chǎn)生。Propersegregationofwastestreamswillallowmoreopportunityforrecyclingandreclamation.對(duì)廢物適當(dāng)分離將為回收和利用提供更多機(jī)會(huì)。Itisoftenlessexpensivetorecycleachemicalthantopurchasenewmaterialandpayfoedisposalcosts.回收利用一個(gè)化學(xué)品比購(gòu)置一個(gè)新物質(zhì)和對(duì)舊物質(zhì)處置費(fèi)用要低。Sometimes,amaterialmaynolongermeetspecificationsforonepurposebutmaybesuitableforothersusesatthefacility.有時(shí)候，一個(gè)材料可能不再符合原來(lái)規(guī)格，不過(guò)可能能夠適適用于設(shè)施上其余用途。Forexample,solventusedtocleanpaintequipmentmayserveasthinnerforthenextbatch.Closed-loopsystemseliminatedisposalofhazardouschemicals.譬如，被用于清洗油漆設(shè)備溶劑可能對(duì)于下一批產(chǎn)品起稀釋劑作用。Recyclingandreuse回收和再利用Recyclingcanbeperformedbothon-siteandoff-site.Wasteexchangesmayprovideopportunityforawasteatoneplanttobecomeausefulproductatanother.回收能夠在現(xiàn)場(chǎng)和非現(xiàn)場(chǎng)執(zhí)行。廢物交換能夠?yàn)樵谝粋€(gè)工廠廢物成為在另一個(gè)上有用產(chǎn)品提供機(jī)會(huì)。WasteMinimization/WasteReductionImplementation廢物最小化/實(shí)現(xiàn)降低廢物Inorderforanindustrytoimplementwasteminimization/wastereduction,certainelementsneedtobeinplace.為了在行業(yè)中能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)廢物最小/降低廢物，一些要素必須具備.Firstthereshouldbeownershipormanagementcommitment.首先，是全部者或管理層承諾.Thisshouldbeawrittenpolicyindicatingsupportofwasteminimization.這應(yīng)該有一個(gè)書面政策表明支持廢物最小化.Managementmustberecognizedasdesirousofthisprogrambeforeemployeeswilladoptitwithanyenthusiasm.在員工熱心采取以前，管理者必須是被認(rèn)為是很支持廢物最小化。Thecommitmenthastobereal,toaffectproductiondecisions,andtobeapartofjobperformanceevaluations.承諾必須是真實(shí)，影響生產(chǎn)決定，并成為工作績(jī)效評(píng)價(jià)其中一部分.Awasteminimizationteamshouldbeestablished.應(yīng)該成立一個(gè)廢物最小化機(jī)構(gòu)。Althougheachcompanywilldifferandspecificnumberandmakeupvarydependingoncompanysize,complexity,andresources,thisteamshouldbecomposedofavarietyofpeoplewhocanbecontributetothewasteminimizationeffort.即使每家企業(yè)會(huì)有所不一樣，詳細(xì)數(shù)量和形式取決于企業(yè)規(guī)模，復(fù)雜性和資源，這個(gè)機(jī)構(gòu)應(yīng)由各種各樣能夠?yàn)閺U物最小化作貢獻(xiàn)來(lái)組成。Examplesofthosewhoshouldbeapartoftheteamincluderepresentativesfromthefollowing.包含以下代表應(yīng)該成為機(jī)構(gòu)一分子:●management管理層●environmentalengineering環(huán)境工程●facilitiesmaintenance設(shè)施維修●processengineering工程過(guò)程●Production生產(chǎn)●safetyandhealth安全與健康●researchanddevelopment研究與發(fā)展●qualitycontrol質(zhì)量控制●purchasing/invento