1)Introduction2)PrototypesandCategoriesWeek1and21)IntroductionWeek1and21DefiningcognitivelinguisticsThreemainapproachesofcognitivelinguisticsReferencesIntroductionIntroduction2CognitiveLinguisticsisthemostrapidlyexpandingschoolinmodernLinguistics.Itaimstocreateascientificapproachtothestudyoflanguage,incorporatingthetoolsofphilosophy,neuroscienceandcomputerscience.

Cognitiveapproachestolanguagewereinitiallybasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit(philosophicalthinkingaboutthemind).Bedistinguishedfroma‘logical’viewoflanguage.DefinitionofcognitivelinguisticsCognitiveLinguisticsisthem3OurcarhasbrokendownTraditionalExplanation—GrammaticalstructureModernExplanation—EstablishabodyofLogicalrulesforgeneratingthegrammaticalsentencesCognitiveExplanation—RepresentedbythreemainapproachesOurcarhasbrokendownTraditi4ExperientialviewProminenceviewAttentionviewThreemainapproachesofcognitivelinguisticsExperientialviewThreemaina5Itsmainclaimisthatinsteadofpostulatinglogicalrulesandobjectivedefinitionsonthebasisoftheoreticalconsiderationsandintrospection,amorepracticalandempiricalpathshouldbepursued.Forexample,Asklanguageuserstodescribewhatisgoingonintheirmindswhentheyproduceandunderstandwordsandsentences.(acar)ExperientialviewItsmainclaimisthatinstead6Theexperientialviewofwordsprovidesamuchricherandmorenaturaldescriptionoftheirmeanings.Cognitivelinguistsbelievethatoursharedexperienceoftheworldisalsostoredinoureverydaylanguageandcanthusbegleanedfromthewayweexpressourideas.Thetransferofourexperienceofwell-knownobjectsandeventsisevenmoreimportantwhereabstractcategorieslikeemotionsisinvolved.Forexample,Dadexploded.Theexperientialviewofwords7Theprominenceviewprovidesoneexplanationofhowtheinformationinaclauseisselectedandarranged.ForExampleThecarcrashedintothetree.Thetreewashitbythecar.ProminenceviewTheprominenceviewprovideso8Thisviewisbasedontheassumptionthatwhatweactuallyexpressreflectswhichpartsofaneventattractourattention.ForexampleThecarcrashedintotree.Analysingthesentenceintermsofattentionallocation,theattentionalviewexplainswhyonestageoftheeventisexpressedinthesentenceandwhyotherstagesarenot.AttentionalviewThisviewisbasedontheassu9辛斌.認知語言學理論的發(fā)展、應(yīng)用及跨學科研究——第四屆全國認知語言學研討會綜述[J].外語研究,

2006(6)廖巧云.認知語言學研究的新概括--《認知語言學》述介[J],現(xiàn)代外語2005(2)熊學亮.認知語言學簡述[J].外語研究,2001(3)張輝.認知語言學研究現(xiàn)狀[J].外語研究,2001(3)

References辛斌.認知語言學理論的發(fā)展、應(yīng)用及跨學科研究——第四屆全國10Introduction:LanguageandCategorization(范疇化)Focalcolours(焦點色)ThepsychologicalbackgroundoffocalcoloursPrototypicalshapes(形狀)PrototypicalorganismandobjectGoodexamples,badexamplesandcategoryReferencesPrototypesandCategoriesIntroduction:LanguageandCat11Vagueentityandvagueness(含糊性,模糊性)Fuzzinessandfuzzycategory(模糊范疇)Labov’sexperimentsandconclusionGoodexamples,badexamplesandcategoryboundariesVagueentityandvagueness(含糊12InformantsinLabov’sexperimentswereshownlinedrawingsofcupsandothervessels.Thedrawingswerepresentedonebyoneandtheinformantswereaskedtonamethem.Theresultoftheexperimentshowsthatconsistencyis100percentforprototypebutdecreasestowardsthemarginalmembers.Labov’sexperimentInformantsinLabov’sexperime13ConclusionCategoriesdonotrepresentarbitrarydivisionsofthephenomenaoftheworld,butshouldbeseenasbasedonthecognitivecapacitiesofthehumanmind.Cognitivecategoriesofcolours,shapes,butalsooforganismsandconcreteobjectsareanchoredinconceptuallysalintprotypes,whichplayacrucialpartintheinformationofcategories.ConclusionCategoriesdonotr14theboundariesofcognitvecategoriesarefuzzy,i.e.neighbouringcategoriesarenotseparatedbyrigidboundaries,butmergedintoeachother.Betweenprototypesandboundaries,cognitvecategoriescontainmemberswhichcanberatedonatypicalityscalerangingfromgoodtobadexamples.Note:cognitivecategoriesareequivalentwiththemeaningsofthesewords;whilewordswhicharepolysemous(多義詞)mightdenoteseveralcategories.(Chair-主席,椅子)theboundariesofcognitveca15Theterms‘vagueentity’and‘vagueness’’refertoonetypeoftransitionzone,whicharisesfromtheobservationthatsomeconcreteentitiesdonothaveclear-cutboundariesinreality(kneeandotherbodyparts;fog,snowandsimilarweatherphenomenaandlandscapeformslikevalleyormountain.VagueentityandvaguenessTheterms‘vagueentity’and‘16Fuzzinessreferstothecategoryboundariesofentities(chairetc.)andthesecategoriesaretheproductofcognitiveclassification.Itisnottheboundariesofentitiesthatarevague,buttheboundariesofthesecognitivecategories(here:chairsandnon-chairs).Infact,therearesomecaseswherevaguenessandfuzzinesscoincide.(mountain)Alltypesofconcreteentitiesandnaturalphenomenalikecoloursareconceptuallyorganizedintermsofprototypecategories,whosedoundariesdonotseemtobeclear-cut,butfuzzy.FuzzinessandfuzzycategoryFuzzinessreferstothecatego17Doexercise2,4onpage20Doexercise2,4onpage2018Thenotionofprototypecanbeextendedtoentitieswhicharelessobviouslyperceptual.Rosch’sexperiments(1973,1975)Askthestudentstojudgethegoodness(typicality)ofcategorymembers(birds,fruitetc.)withoutreferringtothetextbooks.Thegoodnessratingswerealsoconfirmedinmatchingexperimentsinwhichthe‘priming’techniqueswasused.(Rosch,1975).—theadvanceinformationwhichiscalledupbytheprimedcategorynameismostreadilyappliedtogoodexamples.PrototypicalOrganismsandObjectsThenotionofprototypecanbe19Thecategoriesareformedaroundprototypes,whichfunctionascognitivereferencepoints.Categorizationinvolvesdifferentdegreesoftypicality.Thecategoriesareformedarou20Drawsomeshapes(3sets)ontheblackboardSquaresandtheothergoodformsarealsoprimecandidatesfor‘natural’prototypesinthedomainofgeometricalshapes,similartothefocalcoloursincolourspace.Naturalprototypeisassociatedwithanameandalsojudgedbestexample,nomatterwhetheritispresentedinanaturalcategoryorasamarginalrealizationoftheprincipleunderlyingoneoftheothersets.PrototypicalShapesDrawsomeshapes(3sets)onth21ExerciseDrawpicturesofprototypicalexamplesandofobjectsontheborderlinebetweenthecategoriesBOTTLE,GLASS,VASEANDBOWL.ExerciseDrawpicturesofprot22ThepsychologicalprocessesofthecategorizationRosch’sexperimentsRosch’sfindingsPrototypeThepsychologicalbackgroundoffocalcoloursThepsychologicalprocessesof23Thecategorizaitonofnaturalphenomenaisinvolvedinthefollowingprocesses:1.Selectionofsimuli(attractourattention)2.Identificationandclassification3.NamingRoschfoundoutfocalcolourwererootedinlanguageorinpre-linguisticcognition(前語言的認知)andfocalcoloursareprovedtobeprominentinthecognitiveprocessesinvolvedincategorization.ThepsychologicalprocessesofcategorizationThecategorizaitonofnatural24BasedontheresultofRosch’sexperiment,RoschreplacedBerlinandKay’s‘focus’withprototype.Thetermwasborrowedfromearlierresearchintopatternrecognitionofsuchstimuliasdotpatterns,polygons多邊形andschematicfaces.‘prototype’stoodforartificiallycreated‘bestexample’Theterm’prototype’madeitmucheasiertoextendthenotionoffocibeyondcolourcategories,e.gintothedomainsofshapes,organismsandobjects.PrototypeBasedontheresultofRosch’s25Rosch’sfirstexperiment:totestthearousalofattentionThesecondexperiment:acolour-matchingmaskTherecognitiontaskRosch’sexperimentsRosch’sfirstexperiment:tot26Focalcoloursareperceptuallymoresalinetthannon-focalcolours.Focalcoloursaremoreaccuratelyrememberedinshort-termmemoryandmoreeasilyretainedinlong-termmemory.Thenamesoffocalcoloursaremorerapidlyproducedincolour-namingtasksandareacquiredearlierbychildren.Rosch’sFindingsFocalcoloursareperceptually27BerlinandKay’sexperimentBasiccolourterms(基本顏色)BerlinandKay’sfindingsExerciseFocalColoursBerlinandKay’sexperimentFoc28Workedwithso-calledMunsellcolourchipsThreedimensions(屬性):hue(色調(diào)),brightness(亮度)andsaturation(飽和度)Testhowspeakersofthe20selectedlanguagescategorizedcolours.Providethecriteriaforbasiccolourterms.BerlinandKay’sexperimentWorkedwithso-calledMunsell29Thetermsshouldconsistofjustonewordofnativeorigin(asopposedtogreenish-blueandturquoise(綠松石)Theirapplicationshouldnotberestrictedtoanarrowclassofobjects(asopposed,e.g.,toEnglishandGermanblond)Thewordsshouldcometomindreadilyandshouldbefamiliartoalloratleasttomostspeakersofalanguage.BasiccolourtermsThetermsshouldconsistofju30Incategorizingcolourspeoplerelyoncertainpoints(foci)inthecolourspacefororientation.Focalcoloursarenotonlysharedbythespeakersofoneandthesamelanguagebuttheyarealsoveryconsistentacrossdifferentlanguages.Colourcategorizationisanchoredinfocalcolours.Theboundariesofcolourcategoriesvarybetweenlanguagesandspeakers.BerlinandKay’sfindingsIncategorizingcolourspeople31ListbasiccolourtermsinChinesebycheckingwhichcolourtermsconsistofonlyoneshortwordandarefreelyapplicabletodifferentkindsofobjectsandorganisms.Descibethecolourofsweaters,T-shirts,etc.usingbasiccolourtermsaspointsofreference.ExerciseListbasiccolourtermsinChi32ClassificationCategorizationandCognitivecategorizationTheprinciplesguidingthementalprocessofcategorizationCategorizationClassificationCategorization33Theworldconsistsofaninfinitevarietyofobjectswithdifferentsubstances,shapesandcolours.Howdoweclassifythevarietyofobjects?Forexample,organismsandobjectsOthertypesofentities(partsoforganism,landscapenamesandwordsofweatherphenomena)Physicalproperties(temperature,colours)ClassificationTheworldconsistsofaninfin34Easytoidentify,classifyandnameTheyareclearlydelimitedobjectsEasytoidentify,classify