Generally,phrasalverbsoccuroftenincolloquialEnglish,whiletheircorrespondingsinglewordsarefrequentlyfoundinwriting.Idiomsotherthanphrasalverbs(theyarecloselyrelatedwithEnglishculture.TounderstandthemproperlyoneneedstoattainfamiliaritywithEnglishculturefromwhichtheyhavedeveloped.)IdiomsinrelationtomannerismsTosplitone'ssidewithlaughter當(dāng)心笑破了肚皮Tokeepastraightface不動(dòng)聲色Topullsomebody'sleg開某人的玩笑/捉弄某人Torideone'shighhorse趾高氣揚(yáng)Toholdone'sheadhigh昂首挺胸/充滿自信Tomakeacatlaugh把死人逗笑了Tomakeone'sfleshcreep使人汗毛真豎/讓人直起雞皮疙瘩Tomakeaface作個(gè)鬼臉Nottobataneyelid眼不眨，心不跳/處之泰然IdiomsinrelationtolifephilosophyAbigfishinasmallpond鶴立雞群/Milkandwater平淡如水Mindone'sp'sandq's注意言行舉止Nomanisanisland沒能人是一座孤島Justwhatthedoctorordered醫(yī)生的話不能不聽，也不能全聽Tokeepone'snoseclean保持一身清白NotforalltheteainChina給我一座金山，我也不干IdiomsinrelationtoloveandmarriageAmalechauvinist大男子主義Amarriageofconvenience功利婚姻Themarriageoftrueminds真誠(chéng)的結(jié)合Toloveatfirstsight一見鐘情Mr/MissRight白馬王子/絕色佳人OthersNottominceone'swords直言不諱Tomisstheboat坐失良機(jī)Aninedayswonder曇花一現(xiàn)Notinahundredyears永遠(yuǎn)不能成功/一輩子也干不成Tokeepone'sowncompany獨(dú)來獨(dú)往Toknowsomethinglikethepalmofone'shand了如指掌Toknowone'sonionsAninetofivejob朝九晚五Tomoveheavenandearthtodosomething費(fèi)了九牛二虎之力/連吃奶的力氣都用上了Tomakebrickswithoutstraw做無米之飲BetweenScyllaandCharybdis腹背受敵/進(jìn)退兩難Proverbs(apreverbisabrieffamiliarmaximoffolkwisdom,usuallycompressedinform,ofeninvolvingaboldimagearefrequentlyajinglethatcatchesthememory)proverbsrelatedtoChristianityManproposes,Goddisposes.謀事在人，成事在天MillsofGodgrindslowbutsure天網(wǎng)恢恢，疏而不漏Godhelpthosewhohelpthemselves自助者天助之WhomGodwouldruin,hefirstdeprivesofreason上帝要?dú)缯l，必先奪其理性WhomtheGodslovedieyoung上帝的寵兒早夭折Eachcrosshathitsowninscription每個(gè)十字架都有自己的銘文Godsendsmeatandthedevilsendscooks.上帝賜給食物，魔鬼派來廚師Hethatservesgodformoneywillservethedevilforbetterwages.為金錢而侍奉上帝的人會(huì)為更多的報(bào)酬服侍魔鬼proverbsderivedfromtheBibleandgreatEnglishliteraryworksNevercastyourpearlsbeforeswine。不可明珠暗投。/不可對(duì)牛談琴。Hethatincreasethknowledgeincreasethsorrow知識(shí)越廣，遺憾越多。Gossipingandlyinggohandinhand閑話與謊話結(jié)伴同行Pridegoesbeforeahall驕傲是失敗的向?qū)llareofthedust,andallturntothedustagain從從來自泥土，又變回泥土Judgenotaccordingtoappearance.不可根據(jù)外表判斷/勿以貌取人Greatmenarenotalwayswise.偉人并非事事聰明WaterMargin水滸傳DreamofRedMansions紅樓夢(mèng)Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet玫瑰無論叫什么名字都是香的Alltheworldisastage.Andallthemenandwomenaremerelyplayers.整個(gè)世界就是個(gè)大舞臺(tái)，形形色色的人們只是其中的演員。Lifeisbutawalkingshadow人生不是移動(dòng)的影子Itisbettertobeabeggarthanafool作乞丐勝過作傻瓜Uneasyliestheheadthatwearscrown戴王冠的腦袋躺不安穩(wěn)Everywisemandreadethhisenemy聰明人不吃眼前虧Bettertoreigninhellthanserveinheaven寧在地獄為群，不在天堂為臣Thechildisfatheroftheman從小知其人Knowledgeispower知識(shí)就是力量proverbsrelatedtoGreco-RomancivilizationonefallsintoScyllainseekingtoavoidCharybdis為避虎穴，又入狼窩。withoutCeresandBacchus,Venusgrowscold離開克瑞斯和巴克勞動(dòng)保護(hù)，維納斯便心灰意冷FarfromJupiter,farfromthunder遠(yuǎn)離朱庇特，遠(yuǎn)離了雷電IfeartheGreeksevenwhentheybringgifts.希臘人送禮時(shí)也讓我害怕MarryinMay,repentalways.五月結(jié)婚，后悔終身。Homersometimesnods智者千慮，必有一失Fromhisfoot,youmayknowHercules.從他的腳，你就可以認(rèn)出大力士proverbsrelatedtogeographyCarrycoalstoNewcastle北煤上煤都，多此一舉。LemsterbreadandWeableyale,dunmowbaconandDoncasterdaggers.吐魯番的葡萄，哈密的瓜，庫車的姑娘美如花。Englandistheringingisland英國(guó)是充滿鐘聲的島嶼Blessedistheeye,thatisbetwixtSevernandWye塞文河和瓦伊河之間的風(fēng)光，令人大飽眼福Oxfordforlearning,LondonforWit,HullforwomenandYordforhorses.牛津人學(xué)問好，倫敦人才智高，哈勒的女人美，約克的馬匹好proverbsrelatedtonavigationmanydropsofwaterwillsinktheship積漏成多會(huì)沉掉航船itisahardsailingwhenthereisnowind風(fēng)平浪靜，艱難航程asmoothseanevermadeaskillfulmariner海水平靜難造就優(yōu)秀水手agreatshipasksdeepwater大船深水行thegoodseamanisknowninbadweather天氣惡劣才能顯出優(yōu)秀航海家.Littleboatsmustkeeptotheshore小船沉岸行Hethatwouldsailwithoutdangermustnevercomeonthemainsea航行怕風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，絕不要去大海Ratsdesertasinkingship船沉鼠要逃/樹倒猢猻散。Asmallleakwillsinkagreatship小漏沉大船/螻蟻之穴能潰千里之堤。Anyportinastorm船在暴風(fēng)雨中不擇港口/慌不擇路Letanother'sshipwreckbeyourseamark別人的沉船，就是你的航標(biāo)/前車之覆，后車之鑒。proverbsrelatedtowinethereareleestoeverywine凡酒都有沉淀。/金無足赤，人無完人Wineandwenchesemptymen'spurses酒色掏空男人的錢包Wineisaturncoat,firstafriend,thenanenemy酒是叛徒，先是朋友，后是敵人Wineisoldmen'smilk嬰兒離不開奶，老漢離不開酒Winemakesallkindsofcreaturesattable酒使人丑態(tài)百出Wineandjudgmentmaturewithage酒沉味醇，人老識(shí)深BacchushathdrownedmorementhanNeptune酒比海淹死的人多proverbsrelatedtoindividualismanEnglishman'shouseishiscastle英國(guó)人的家也是他們的城堡donotwearoutyourwelcome客人呆得太久不受歡迎evenreckoningmakeslongfriends.明算帳，友誼長(zhǎng)Tellmoneyafteryourownfather父子也是清帳proverbsrelatedtosexismbewareoftheforepartofawoman,thehindpartofamule,andallsidesofapriest當(dāng)心女人的美貌，騾子的后蹄和牧師的一切dallynotwithmoneyorwomen金錢、女人玩弄不得gaming,women,andwine,whiletheylaugh,theymakemenpine賭博、女人和酒，使男人在笑聲中消瘦maidswantnothingbuthusbands,andwhenhavethem,theywanteverything。姑娘除了丈夫外什么都不要；一旦有了丈夫，她們什么都要。themorewomenlookintheirglass,thelesstheylooktotheirhouse女人照鏡子越多，家務(wù)做得越少wivesandchildrenarebillsofcharges.妻子和孩子是帳單proverbsrelatedtotheEnglishwritingsystemproverbsrelatedtothehistoryofEnglanditisashardtopleaseaknaveasaknight取悅壞蛋和騎士同樣困難kings'chaffisworthothermen'scorn國(guó)一的糠勝似百姓的糧allstuartsarenotsibtotheking與國(guó)王同姓的不都是皇帝fromwhippingposttopillory鞭打之后又披枷proverbsrelatedtothethriftfromsavingcomeshaving富裕來自節(jié)儉frugalityisanestatealone節(jié)儉本身就是財(cái)富thriftisgoodrevenue節(jié)儉就是好收入thriftisphilosopher'sstone節(jié)儉猶如點(diǎn)金石Allusions(asdefinedindictionaries,areimpliedorindirectreferences.Inmost,ifnotall,languagespeopleenrichtheirspeechorwritingwithindirectreferencestocharactersoreventsfromculture:literature,legends,history,religion,sports,etc.你真是個(gè)諸葛亮/她是個(gè)王熙鳳式的人物。)Allusionsfromliterature水滸傳WaterMargin紅樓夢(mèng)DreamofRedMansions三國(guó)演義ThreeKingdom西游記PilgrimagetotheWestRemeo(ahandsomeyoungman,passionate,dashing,whohasawaywithwoman[fromShakespeare'sRemeoandJuliet])Cleopatra(awomanofbreathtakingbeauty(fromShakespeare'sAnthonyandCleopatra))AShylock(acruel,greedy,money-grabbingpersonwhowillgotonoendstogainwealth(fromShakespeare'sTheMerchantofVenice))Apoundofflesh()ADr.JekylandMr.Hyde(apersonwithatwo-sidedcharacter,onesidegoodandgentle,theothersideevilandruthless.(fromRobertLouisStevenson'snovelTheStrangeCaseofDr.JekylandMr.Hyde.))ASherlockHolmes(adetectiveorshrewdpersonwhohastheuncannyabilitytotrackdownanyquarryorsolveanymysterythroughcarefulobservations,scientificanalysis,andlogicalreasoning.(fromCharlesArthurConanDoyle'swell-knowndetectivesotries))AnOliverTwist(achildwhoroamsthestreets(fromCharlesDickens'novelOliverTwist))AnuncleTom(ameekpersonwhosubmitstoindignitiesandsufferingswithoutanythoughtoractofrebelling(fromHarrietBeecherStowe'snovelUncleTom'sCabin))ADonJuan(acaptivatingmanknownasagreatloverorseducerofwomen(fromTirsodeMolina'sELburladordeSevilla)ADonQuixote(anidealisticandimpracticalperson(fromMigueldeCsaavedra'sDonQuixote)ACinderella(apersonorthingsufferingfromundeservedneglect;orapersonorthingsuddenlyliftedfromobscuritytohonourorsignificance(fromHansChristianAndersen'sfairy-taleCinderella)AllusionsfrommythologyaDamoclessword:forthcomingdangerordangerthatisalwayspresent,derivedfromaswordhungbyasinglehairoverDamocles,acourtierofancientSyracuse,whenhewasseatedatabanquetaPandora'sbox:aprolificsourceoftroubles,derivedfromtheboxsentbythegodstoPandora,whichshehasforbiddentoopenandwhichloosedaswarmofevilsuponmankindwhensheopeneditoutofcouriosityAtlanticOcean:Atlantics,amythicalislandinwhatisnowtheAtlanticOceanEurope:Europa,aprincesswhowasabductedandcarriedofftoCretebyabullthatwasactuallyZeus,kingofgodsinGreekmythology.Friday:Freya,goddessofmusicJanuary:Janus,aRomangodthatisidentifiedwithdoors,gatesandallbeginningsandthatisartisticallyrepresentedwithtwooppositefaces.Jupiter:thelargestoftheplanetsandfifthinorderfromthesun,derivedfromJupiter,thechiefRomangodMarch:Mars,theRomangodofwarMay:Maia,RomangoddessSaturday:Saturn,RomangodofagricultureUranium:aradioactiveelement,derivedfromUranus,thesky[personifiedasagodandfatherofTiansinGreekmythology.Venus:theplanetsecondinorderfromthesun,derivedfromVenus,theRomangoddessofloveandbeautyAllusionsfromreligionAllusionsfromhistoryAllusionsfromsports.TopicsforconsiderationChapter6.Similes,MetaphorsandAssociationssimilesandmetaphorsGeneralremarksonsimilesandmetaphorsTheyassociatetheiroldexperienceswithnewones,relateabstractideaswithconcreteimagesandconnectunfamiliarthingswithfamiliarones.Asimileisadirectcomparisonbetweentwoormoreunlikethings,normallyintroducedby“l(fā)ike”or“as”.Ametaphorisanimpliedcomparisonbetweentwoormoreunlikethings.Theyhavetwocomponents:tenor（傳達(dá)過程）andvehicle（傳達(dá)手段）Somecross-culturalsimilaritiesanddifferencesinsimilesandmetaphorsSimilesandmetaphorsaredifferentinthatthefunctionwords“l(fā)ike”or“as”areusedinsimilesratherthaninmetaphors.Ontheotherhand,theyarequietsimilarinthattheyarebothconcernedwithanalogymaking.Theyreflectawayofthinking.Analogymakingasawayofthinkingisuniversal.fromacross-cultureperspectiveanalogiesmadeinEnglishandChinesemayfallintotwocategories:1.thesametenorsareassociatedwiththesamevehiclesinbothEnglishandChinese.2.thesametenorsarerelatedtodifferentvehiclesinEnglishandChinese.WhenthingsareperceivedtohavethesamequalitiesbybothEnglishandChinesespeakers,thesametenorsmaybeassociatedwiththesamevehiclesinbothEnglishandChinesetoexpresssimilarmeanings.WhenthesamequalitiesareassociatedwithdifferentthingsinEnglishandChinese,thesametenorsmayberelatedtodifferentvehiclestoexpresssimilarmeaningsMetaphorsisdailyconversationsMetaphoricalexpressionaboutideasWhataresaidleftabadtasterinmymouthAllthispaperhasinitarerawfacts,halfbakedideas,andwarmed-overtheories.TherearetoomanyfactshereformetodigestthemallIjustcan'tswallowthatclaimLetmestewoverthatforawhileNowthereisatheoryyoucanreallysinkyourteethintoThat'sfoodforthoughtWedon'tneedtospoon-feedourstudentsHedevouredthebookThisisthemeatypartofthepaperMetaphoricalexpressionaboutloveMetaphoricalexpressionaboutlifetermsofcolour2.1Red:readisusuallyassociatedwithcelebrationsandjoyfuloccasionsbothinEnglishandChinese.theredcolourisnotalwaysassociatedwithsomethingjoyful.Inenglsih,theredlightdistrictreferstoadistrictwheretherearebrothels.RedisalsoassociatedwithcertainemotionsinbothenglsihandChinese.InChinese,Associatedwithembarrassmentorshyness.ButinEnglish,itisassociatedwithangerandexcitement.Redmeatsmeansbeefandmutton,Redsunderthebedmeansleft-wingactivists.Whitewhiteconnotespurity,innocence.InEnglishexpressionwhitehasotherassociations.AwhiteChristmasrefertosnowatChristmastime.Awhite-collarjob.thewhiteisnotnecessarilyassociatedwithsomethinggood.Inawhiteelephant（無用的）t,thewhitefeatherandawhitenight（）BlackinbothChineseandEnglish,blackisoftenassociatedwithnegativequalities.Suchasblacklist,blackmarket,blackhearted.Ablackday,ablackspot,ablacksheep,ablackmood,ablackcomedy,ablacklook.InsomeEnglishexpressionsblackhasneutralassociation.Inblackandwhite,meanssomethinginwritingorinprint.Blue:inEnglish,blueisusuallyassociatedwithunhappyfeelings.Suchasinabluemood,orhavingtheblues.BlueMonday,andabluefit.Blueisalsooftenassociatedwithhighsocialpositionorbeingaristocratic.Forexample,blueblood.Bluemayalsohassomepleasantassociations.Ablueribbon扌旨徽章，bluestocking指女學(xué)者。Theblue-collarjobs.GreeninEnglish,greenisoftenassociatedwithjealousyandenvy.Greenwithenvy/green-eyedmonsters,andgreen-eyed.Itisalsooftenusedtoindicatelackingexperience,trainingorknowledge.Agreenhorn生手。Isoftenassociatedwithfruitandvegetablesorgardening.Greengrocer.Itisalsothesymbolofvigourandenergy.Agreenoldage.BothgreenlightinEnglishand“綠燈”inChineseareassociatedwithauthoritativepermissiontogoaheadwithsomeproject.Apparently,theyarederivedfromtrafficregulations.YellowinChinese,hasmanypejorativeexpressions.Yellowdoesappearinyellowjournalismandyellowpages.Grey,pinkandpurpleinEnglish,greyisoftenusedmetaphoricallytomeangloomyordismal.Agreyday.Withsomethingunpleasant,ismilderthanblack.Pinkcanbeassociatedwithsomethingbest.Purpleisoftenassociatedwithhighrankorstationingeneralorimperialorregalrankorpowerinparticular.Thepurplereferstoroyalorverynoblerank.Apurplepassage/apurplepatchRemarksontranslatingtermsofcolourfromorintoEnglishredalert空襲緊急警報(bào)。redblooded精力充沛的redhanded現(xiàn)行犯的redhunter迫害共產(chǎn)主義者的人blackbeetle蟑螂blackbrowed愁眉苦臉的blacktea紅茶whitealert解除空襲警報(bào)whiteroom絕塵室whitesmith銀匠，錫匠greenline（軍）轟炸線，敵我分界線greenroom演員休息室bluealert（預(yù)備警報(bào)后的）空襲警報(bào)bluejacket水兵，水手bluewater大海brownbread黑面包brownsugar紅糖brownpaper牛皮紙pinkelephants幻覺（吸毒后）pinktea午后茶會(huì)pinkeye火眼purplemedic苜蓿greycloth本色布greymare比丈夫強(qiáng)的妻子，雌老虎yellowdog雜種狗紅白事weddingsandfunerals.紅塵theworldofmortals,humansociety紅光滿面one'sfaceisglowingwithhealth紅利bonus紅人afavouritewithsomebodyinpower黃道吉日aluckyday黃泉netherworld黃牛ox,cattle白菜chinesecabbage白癡idiot白費(fèi)invain白金platinum白卷blankexaminationpaper白面flour白薯sweetpotato白蟻termite白銀silver白晝daytime黑暗dark黑管clarinet黑話argot黑貨smuggledgoods黑信poison-penletters.綠寶石emerald綠洲oasisTopicsforconsiderationChapter7.Honourifics,TermsofHumility,EuphemismsandTaboos1.Honourifics(itisthathonourificsarelanguageformsusedinspeechestoshowrespecttoasuperior.)InChinese:itishardtosayforsurewhytherearesomanyhonourificsinChinese.suchas,您，陛下，令堂，令尊。ButinEnglishculturefamiliarityishighlyvalued.Chineselearnershaveto“forget”or“ignore”.Therearehonourificsinenglish,too,forexample,majesty,honourableandexcellency.Englishhonourificsarenotfrequentlyusedindailyspeechesandconversations.ChinesehonourificsoftendonothaveequivalentsinEnglish.您，您老you先生/女士：you局長(zhǎng)、經(jīng)理、老師等youorthepersons'names爺爺、奶奶、伯父、伯母等you哥哥，姐姐you令尊，令堂，二老yourfather,yourmother,yourparents.令郎、令愛等yourson,yourdaughter,etc貴姓，尊姓大名yourname貴庚yourage貴國(guó)，貴校，貴廠，貴府等。Yourcountry,yourschool,yourfactory,yourhome,etc.惠函yourletter久仰大名，久仰I'veheardalotaboutyou.Yournameiswell-knownheretous...歡迎光臨welcome,welcometo...歡迎指導(dǎo)welcome,welcometo.你有何高見what'syouropinion?I'dliketohaveyouropinion您有何貴干whatbringyouhere?I'dliketoknowwhyyou'rehere?請(qǐng)?zhí)釋氋F意見:pleasegiveusyourcommentsorsuggestions.Couldyougiveusyourcommentsorsuggestions?請(qǐng)賜教pleasebesokindastogivemesomeadviceorsuggestions拜托requestsomebodytodosomething;“wouldyoubesokindastodo.?”拜謝expressone'sgratitude拜訪payavisit拜辭takeleaveof拜年payaNewYearcall拜讀了大作I'vereadyourpaper(article,report,work,book,etc)敬請(qǐng)扌旨正I'dliketohaveyourcommentsonmylook(work,etc).(itisoftennothingbutapoliteremarkwhenshowingorgivingone;sownpublicationsorworkasagift.)敬請(qǐng)光臨：you'reinvitedtocometo1.TermsofHumilityItisusedtoshowthespeaker'smodesty.TosoundmodestandhumblewasvitaltotheancientChinesepeople,especiallywhentheycommunicatedwiththosewhowereolder,higherinsocioeconomicposition,ormoreprivilegedinaspecificarea.Incontrast,therearefewtermsofhumilityinEnglish.IfyouwanttolearnEnglishwell,forgetthem.敝人I,me內(nèi)人，老婆mywife小兒，兒家那小子myson小女，我那個(gè)丫頭mydaughter寒舍，舍下myhome敝校，敝廠，敝所等this(our)school,factory,institution,etc便飯dinner拙作mybook(painting,literarywork,thesis,etc.)獻(xiàn)丑(itisnormallynothingmorethanapoliteremarkgivenbeforeone;sperformanceofakind)2.EuphemismsEuphemismsarepleasant,politeorharmlesssoundingwordsorexpressionsusedtomaskharsh,rudeorinfamoustruths.Gohe'sgoneDeparttodepartfromthislife;departfromthisworldforeverDeceasetodecease;thedeceased(allusedinlegalorformalcontexts.)PerishtoperishinwarFalltofallinbattlePassawaythepatientpassedawayduringthenightBreatheone'slasthebreathedhislastandwasburiedinthechurchyardSleeptosleepinthegravesEndwineendedhimExpireheexpiredearlyInthemorningGothewayofallflesh(dieasothermendo)ThegreatestartistofthefirsthalfofthiscenturyhaslonglastgonethewayofallfleshGosweet(fromthesunsinkinginthewest)it'salongtimesincehewentwestGotoabetterworldBeinheavenBewithGodPayone'sdebttonaturePaythedebtofnature.ManyEnglisheuphemismsareusedtorefertothedisadvantagedintheUnitedStates.Theblackpeople,usedNegros.Ethnicneighborhood,backwardcountries,elderlypeople,plainlooking,heavy,slender,physicallyhandicapped,hardofhearing.Agroupofeuphemismsarerelatedtowork.TherearemanyeuphemismsinEnglishforlavatory.Washroom,bathroom,restroom,comfortstation,powderroom,ladies'gents',men's,wc,toilet.Euphemismsarealsofrequentlyusedineducation.Andusedinmassmediaaboutpolitical,socioeconomicaffairsandinternationalrelationstoavoidtheunpleasantnessofsometermsorexpress.Industrialaction1.TaboosAnythingwhichisprohibitedbyreligion,traditionofsocialusageisataboo.InbothEnglishandChinese,theactsofhumanexcretionaretobeavoidedinpoliteconversations.Certainpartofthebodyandsexualintercoursearetaboosinbothtwocountries.especiallytoChinese.Swearwords,profaneorobsceneoathsorwords,aretabooinbothtwocountries.InEnglish:anythingrelatedtoprivacyorconsideredpersonalaretaboo.Forexample,age,income,political,religiousbeliefs,etc.anydirectquestionabouttheageofastrangerorapersononedoesnotknowwellisimproper.Anythingthatmyremindanoldpersonofhis/heragemightbeoffensive.Personincomeisalsotaboo.Questionsabouttheirloveandmarriageshouldbeavoided.Itisalsoimpropertoaskdirectlyotherpeople'sreligiousbeliefs.Racismistoo.Thecalmesthusbandsmakethestormiestwives丈夫懦弱妻子兇Themother-in-lawremembersnotthatshewasadaughter-in-law作了婆婆忘了作媳婦的苦妖evilspirits,alluring.媚flattering奸wicked,treacherous婪greedy嫉妒jealous,envious姘tohaveillicitsexualrelationswith嫖tovisitprostitutes婊prostituteTopicsforconsiderationChapter&CultureinTexts1.introductiontosomefundamentalconceptsofthetextitreferstoanypieceofspokenorwrittenlanguage,whichexpressesacompletemeaning.Inanormaltextthesentencesareconnectedinonewayoranother.Notanycollectionofsentencescanbecomeatext.Onlythosecollectionsofsentencesthatconsistofsentencesconnectedincertainwayscanberegardedastexts.Agroupofsentencesthatarejuxtaposedinarandomfashioncanneverbetreatedasatext.Weshallnotgointodetailsofcohesionandcoherence.However,weshouldrememberthatthesentencesinatextareconnectedeitherbygrammaticaland/orlexicalmeansorbymeaningalone.Theyarenotjustarandomcollectionofunrelatedsentences.Anormaltextalsohasstructureswhichrefertothewaysinwhichthepartsofatextareorganizedandrelatedtooneanothertoformameaningfulwhole.Wecanfindcross-culturedifferenceintexts.2.TextualconnectivesInanormaltextsentencesareconnectedeitherhypotacticallyorparatactically.Andparatacticrelationsrefertoconstructionswhicharelinkedthroughjuxtapositionandpunctuation/intonationandnotthroughtheuseofconjunction.Thenotionofhypotacticandparatacticrelationscanalsobeappliedtothestudyoftheconnectionbetweensentencesintexts.Iftwoormoresentencesinatextarelinkedbytextualconnectives,theyarehypotacticallyrelated.Itisimportanttonotethattextualconnectivesincludenotonlyconjunctions(and,or,but,etc)butalsowordsofotherwordclassesorevenphrases.(however,furthmore,next,secondly,forexample,asamatteroffact.)thatfunctionaslinkagesbetweensentencesinatext.Textualconnectivesexplicitlyrepresentthelogicalrelationsbetweensentences.AlthoughhypotacticandparatacticrelationscanbefoundineitherEnglishofChineseisaparatacticone.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatatethesententiallevelhypotacticrelationsareobservedfarmorefre