國(guó)際貿(mào)易實(shí)務(wù)

ImportandExportPractices

1.ReasonsforInternationalTrade

1).Resourcereasons:Theunevendistributionofresourcesaroundtheworldisoneofthebasicreasonswhynationsbeganandcontinuetotradewitheachother.

Favorableclimaticconditionsandterrain.Climaticconditionsandterrainareveryimportantforagriculturalproduces.Thedifferenceinthesefactorsenablessomecountriestogrowcertainplantsandleavesothercountrieswiththeonlychoicetoimporttheproducestheyconsume.

Naturalresources.Somecountriesarethemajorsupplierofcertainnaturalresourcesbecausethedistributionofnaturalresourcesaroundtheworldissomewhathaphazard.

Skilledworkers.

Capitalresources.Developingcountriesneedtomodernizetheirindustriesandeconomieswithadvancesmachinery,equipmentandplantthattheyarenotyetabletomanufacturebecauseofthelackofcapital.Thishasgivenrisetotheneedfordevelopinginternationaltrade.

Favorablegeographiclocationandtransportcosts.Therearemanyexamplesthatcountrieshavedevelopedcloseeconomicrelationshipschieflybecausetheyaregeographicallyclosetoeachother.

Insufficientproduction.Somecountriescannotproduceenoughitemstheyneed.Developingcountriesnormallydonothaveenoughmanufacturedgoodsastheyneedandthereforehavetoimportthem.

2).Economicreasons:Inadditiontogettingtheproductstheyneed,countriesalsowanttogaineconomicallybytradingwitheachother.Itismadepossiblebyvariedpricesforthesomecommodityaroundtheworld,reflectingthedifferencesinthecostofproduction.

Absoluteadvantage–ByAdamSmithsinTheWealthofNations(1776).

Comparativeadvantage–byDavidRicardoinPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy(1871).

3).Politicalreasons:Politicalobjectivescansometimesoutweigheconomicconsiderationsbetweencountries.Onecountrymighttradewithanothercountryinordertosupportthelatter’sgovernmentwhichupholdsthesamepoliticaldoctrine.Ortradewithsomecountriesisbannedorrestrictedjustnottobenefitagovernmentwithpoliticaldisagreements.

2.BenefitsofInternationalTrade

1).Cheapergoods.Countriestradebecausethereisacostadvantage.Competitionintheworldmarketremainsconstant.

2).Greatervarietywhengoodcomefrommorecountries.

3).Widermarketwithincreasingnumberoftradingpartners.

4).Growthofeconomy.

3.ProblemsinInternationalTrade

1).Traderestrictions

Reasonsfortraderestrictions:

Wantingadiversifiedeconomy

Protectingtheirvitalindustries.

Foraninfantindustry.

Protectingthedomesticjobs

Forpurepoliticalreasons

Kindsofrestrictions:

Tariffisadutyorfeeleviedongoodsbeingimportedintoacountry.Therearerevenuetariffandprotectiontariff.Forduty,thereareimportduty,exportduty,importsurtax(countervailingduty,anti-dumpingduty),specificduty,Advaloremduty,Mixed/compoundduty.

Non-tariffbarriers:Quota,importlicense,foreignexchangecontrol,statemonopolyofimportandexport,governmentprocurementpolicy,advanceddeposit,technicalstandards,health&sanitaryregulations,packagingandlabelingregulations,minimumprice.

2).CulturalProblems

Therearetwomajorculturalissuesthatcontributetothesuccessofinternationaltrade:1)language,includingtermsoftransaction;and2)customsandmanners.Itinfactrequiresseparatetextstoaddressthesetwosubjects.Internationaltradersmustbeconstantlyawarethatculturalproblemshaveremainedtobethemajorobstaclesininternationaltradeand,therefore,everyeffortshouldbemadetoidentifyandsolvesuchproblems.

3)Monetaryconversion

Sincedifferentcurrenciesareinvolvedininternationaltrade,conversionbetweencurrenciesininevitable.Yetitisnotsimplejobtoconvertonecurrencyintoanotherwithoutalosswhilealmostallcurrenciesfloateveryminute.Theexistenceofexchangeriskrepresentsagreatchallengetoallinternationaltradersandtryingtohedgeagainsttheriskhasbeentheeverydayjobofmanyprofessionals.Similartoculturalproblems,thisissueneedstobeaddressedbyotherbooksduetoitscomplication.

4.Assignment

.Brieflydefinesomerelevantterms.

ChapterTwo.

TermsofDelivery

1.VitalAspectsofaTransaction

Internationaltradehas,eveninsingletransaction,numerousproceduresencompassingpacking,insurance,license,customsentry,shipping,loading/unloading,transshipment,andimport/exportduties.Eachproceduremustbeaclearspecificationregardingthefollowingissues.

1)ResponsibilitiesandAssociatedCosts:Theremustbenoambiguityintheinterpretationbyeitherpartyofthetermsofdeliveryquoted,particularlyintheareaofcostsandexpenses.Problemswouldoftenmeanlossofgoodrelationsandlossofrepeatorders.Itisthereforeessentialforboththebuyerandthesellertoagreeonthetermsofdeliveryandtheirinterpretations.

2)Timeandplaceofdelivery:Timeandplaceofdeliveryarecrucialfactorsindefiningthepointwheretheresponsibilitiesandtheriskspassfromthesellertothebuyer.Sellersandbuyerscanchoosetheplaceofdeliveryaccordingtotheresponsibilitiesandrisksthateachpartywantstotake.

3)Documentsandexpense:Internationaltradetransactionsrequiremoredocumentsthandomesticsalesandpurchases.Almostforeachprocedurethereisadocumentandnearlyeachofthedocumentsentailsacost,eitherhiddenorapparent.

4)Titletogoods:Differenttermsofdeliverymeandifferentresponsibilitiesofthesellerandbuyer.Accordingly,titletothegoodswillpassoverfromthesellertothebuyeratdifferenttimeandplaces.Sellersandbuyersneedtoknowwhenandhowtheywillloseoracquirethetitletothegoods.

2.ThePurposeofTermsofDeliveryandIncoterms

(InternationalRulesforInterpretationofTradeTerms)

Theproblemininternationaltradeisthatdifferentcountriesmighthavedifferentwaysofinterpretingthesamecontractwording.Suchaproblemcanbesolvedonlybycreatingasetofinternationallyagreedterms.

TheIncotermsaimtoprovidesuchasetofstandardizedterms,whichmeanexactlythesamewaybycourtsineverycountry.Incotermsarenotpartofnationalorinternationallaw,buttheycanbebindingonbuyersorsellersprovidedthesalescontractspecifiesthataparticularIncotermswillapply.

4.AViewoftheStructureofIncoterms2000

Forthepurposeofeasierreadingandunderstanding,thetermsinIncoterms2000aregroupedinfourbasicallydifferentcategories:1)GroupEterm,2)GroupFterms,3)GroupCtermsand4)GroupDterms,withincreasingresponsibilities,costsandrisksforthebuyer.

GroupEhasone(departure)termonly,ExWorks(EXW).ItiscalledadeparturetermwherebytheWellermakesthegoodsavailabletothebuyerattheseller’sownpremises.

GroupFhasthree(shipment)terms:FreeCarrier(FCA,FreeAlongsideShip(FAS)andFreeOnBoard(FOB).Thesetermscalluponthesellertodeliverthegoodstoacarrierappointedandpaidbythebuyer.

GroupCcontainsfour(shipment)terms:CostandFreight(CFR),Cost,InsuranceandFreight(CIF),CarriagePaidTo(CPT)andCarriageandInsurancePaidTo(CIP).InThesetermsthesellerhastocontractandpayforcarriage,butthesellerdoesnotassumetheriskoflossofordamagetothegoodsoradditionalcostsduetoeventsoccurringaftershipmentanddispatch.

GroupDincludesfive(arrival)termswherebythesellerhastobearallcostsandrisksneededtobringthegoodstothecountryofdestination:DeliveredAtFrontier(DAF),DeliveredExShip(DES),DeliveredExQuay(DEQ),DeliveredDutyUnpaid(DDU)andDeliveredDutyPaid(DDP).

5.ABriefExplanationoftheTerms

1)ExWorks…namedplace:Thistermmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenhehasmadethegoodsavailableathispremises(i.e.,works,factory,warehouse,etc)tothebuyer.Inparticular,heisnotresponsibleforloadingthegoodsonthevehicleprovidedbythebuyerorforclearingthegoodsforexport,unlessotherwiseagreed.Thebuyerbearsallcostsandrisksinvolvedintakingthegoodsfromtheseller’spremisestothedesireddestination.Thistermthusrepresentstheminimumobligationfortheseller.Thistermshouldnotbeusedwhenthebuyercannotcarryoutdirectlyorindirectlytheexportformalities.

2)FreeCarrier…namedplace:Thistermmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenhehashandedoverthegoods,clearedforexport,intothechargeofthecarriernamedbythebuyeratthenamedplaceorpoint.Ifnoprecisepointisindicatedbythebuyer,thesellermaychoosewithintheplaceorrangestipulatedwherethecarriershalltakethegoodsintohischarge.When,accordingtocommercialpractice,theseller’sassistanceisrequiredinmakingthecontractwiththecarrier(suchasinrailorairtransport),thesellermightactatthebuyer’sriskandexpense.

3)FreeAlongsideShip…namedportofshipment:FASmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenthegoodshavebeenplacedalongsidethevesselonthequayorinlightersatthenamedportofshipment.Thismeansthatthebuyerhastobearallcostsandrisksoflossofordamagetothegoodsfromthemoment.

4)FreeOnBoard…namedportofshipment:FOBmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenthegoodshavepassedovertheship’srailatthenamedportofshipment.Thismeansthatthebuyerhastobearallcostsandrisksoflossofordamagetothegoodsfromthatpoint.However,thistermalsorequiresthesellerto“deliverthegoodsonboardthevessel〞.Clearly,itishardtouseship’srailasapointtodivideresponsibilitiesandcostsbecausetheloadingofthegoodsisacontinuousperformance.AsthestipulationsinIncotermsarenotimperative,thesellerandthebuyercannegotiatethedivisionpointofresponsibilitiesandcosts.Thereareseveralderivedtermsavailabletoservethispurpose.

5).CostAndFreight...namedportofdestination

CFRmeansthatthesellermustpaythecostsandfreightnecessarytobringthegoodstothenamedportofdestinationbuttheriskoflossofordamagetothegoods,aswellasanyadditionalcostsduetoeventsoccurringafterthetimethegoodshavebeendeliveredonboardthevessel,istransferredfromthesellertobuyerwhenthegoodspasstheship'srailintheportofshipment.

6).Cost,InsuranceAndFreight...namedportofdestination

CIFmeansthatthesellerhasthesameobligationsasunderCFRbutwiththeadditionthathehastoprocuremarineinsuranceagainstthebuyer'sriskoflossordamagetothegoodsduringthecarriage.Thesellercontractsforinsuranceandpaystheinsurancepremium.

ThebuyershouldnotethatundertheCIFtermthesellerisonlyrequiredtoobtaininsuranceontheminimumcoverage.

Thistermrequiresthesellertoclearthegoodsforexport.

CIFcanonlybeusedforseaandinlandwaterwaytransport.Whentheship'srailservesnopracticalpurposessuchasinthecaseorro-on/ro-offorcontainertraffic,theCIPtermismoreappropriatetouse.

7).CarriagePaidTo...namedplaceofdestination

CPTmeansthatsellerpaysthefreightforthecarriageofthegoodstothenameddestination.Theriskoflossofordamagetothegoods,aswellasanyadditionalcostsduetotheeventsoccurringafterthetimethegoodshavebeendeliveredtothecarrier,istransferredfromthesellertothebuyerwhenthegoodshavebeendeliveredintothecustodyofthecarrier.

8).CarriageAndInsurancePaidTo...namedplaceofdestination

CIPmeansthatthesellerhasthesameobligationsasunderCPTbutwiththeadditionthatthesellerhastoprocurecargoinsuranceagainstthebuyer'sriskoflossofordamagetothegoodsduringthecarriage.Thesellercontractsforinsuranceandpaystheinsurancepremium.

9).DeliveredAtFrontier...namedplace

DAFmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenthegoodshavebeenmakeavailable,clearedforexport,atthenamedpointandplaceatthefrontier,butbeforethecustomsborderoftheadjoiningcountry.Thetermfrontiermaybeusedforanyfrontierincludingthatofthecountryofexport.Therefore,itisofvitalimportancethatfrontierinquestionbedefinedpreciselybyalwaysnamingthepointandplaceintheterm.Thetermisprimarilyintendedtobeusedwhengoodsaretobecarriedbyrailorroad,butitmaybeusedforanymodeoftransport.

10).DeliveredExShip...namedporttodestination

DESmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenthegoodshavebeenmadeavailabletothebuyeronboardtheshipunclearforimportatthenamedportofdestination.Thesellerhastobearallthecostsandrisksinvolvedinbringingthegoodstothenamedportofdestination.

Thistermcanonlybeusedforseaorinlandwaterwaytransport.

11).DeliveredExQuay(DutyPaid)...namedportofdestination

DEQ(dutypaid)meansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenhehasmakethegoodsavailabletothebuyeronthequay(wharf)atthenamedportofdestination,clearedforimport.Thesellerhastobearallrisksandcostsincludingduties,taxesandotherchargesofdeliveringthegoodsthereto.

12).DeliveredDutyUnpaid...namedplaceofdestination

DDUmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenthegoodshavebeenmadeavailableatthenamedplaceinthecountryofimport.Thesellerhastobearthecostsandrisksinvolvedinbringingthegoodsthereto(excludingduties,taxesandotherofficialchargespayableuponimportation)aswellasthecostsandrisksofcarryingoutcustomsformalitiesforexportandtransitthroughanothercountry.Thebuyerhastopayanyadditionalcostsandtobearanyriskscausedbyhisfailuretoclearthegoodsforimportintime.

13).DeliveredDutyPaid...namedplaceofdestination

DDPmeansthatthesellerfulfilshisobligationtodeliverwhenthegoodshavebeenmadeavailableatthenamedplaceinthecountryofimportation.Thesellerhastobeartherisksandcosts,includingduties,taxesandotherchargesofdeliveringthegoodsthereto,clearedforimport.Thistermrepresentsthemaximumobligation.

6.POINTSOFCONSIDERATIONFORCHOOSINGTERMSOFDELIVERY

1).Transportcapacity

Thepartywhowishestocontractforcarriageofthegoodsmustmakesurethatthereisenoughtransportcapacityavailabletodeliverthegoodsintime.Attentionshouldbepaidtothepossibilitythattransportcapacitymightbelimitedduringaspecificperiodoftime.Thegeneralavailabilityofthecapacitydoesnotnecessarilymeanthecapacitywillbeavailableatanytime.

2).Customer'slocation

Sometimesitisdifficulttoarrangethetransportofthegoodsbytheseller'sorthebuyer'sownfleetbecauseofthelocationofthebuyerortheseller.Forexample,whenaHongKongcustomerisbuyingfrommainlandandsellingtoTaiwan,themainlandsellercan'tusehisownshipfortheshipmentofthegoodsbecauseTaiwaneseauthoritydoesnotpermitamainlandshiptoenteranyportthere.

3).Freightrate

Freightratefluctuatesduetothechangeinsupplyanddemand.Exportersandimportersshouldfirstlookatthedirectionofthefluctuationandthendecideiftheywanttoberesponsibleforcarriage.

4).Loading/unloadingfacilitiesandlocalportcustom

Inexport,ifunloadingfacilitiesareinadequateandunloadingcostsarehighorwhentheyareunknown,thesellermightwanttoavoidlandedterms.

Inimport,ifthebuyerwishestopickupgoodswithhisownship,heshouldconsidertheloadingfacilitiesandchargesattheportofshipment.

5).Risksintransit

Risksintransitmustbeconsidereddependingonwherethetransportstartsandends.Forexample,manycommercialvesselsavoidedthePersianGulfduringIran-Iraqwar.

7.Assignment

Givethefullformsofthefollowing:FAS,DEQ,CIF.

Chapter3

CargoPacking,Stowage&Marking

1.NEEDSOFCARTOPACKING

Themajorityofthecargoesshippedbetweencountrieshavepackingofonetypeoranother.Generallyspeaking,cargopackingisneededforthreemainreasons.

Firstandforemost,packingprotectscargoesandreduceslosses.Thisisrelevanttomosttypesofcargoes,nomatterwhatmeansoftransportisused.

Secondly,packingaidstransportandreducestransportcost.Cargoesintransitwillgothroughanumberofproceduressuchasloading,shipping,unloading,inspection,andwarehousing,etc.Thehandlingcanbemademoreconvenientwithproperpackingandsuchconveniencehelpsprotectthecargoesbeingshipped.

Thirdly,packingfacilitatesstowageanddistributionandpromotessales.Whentheyarepackedinproperquantity/weightandwithpropermarking,cargoescanbestowedanddistributedefficiently.Cargopackingmayalsopromotesalesifitisdesignedwisely,althoughitspromotionalfunctionisnotasimportantasthatofsalespacking.

2.FACTORSINFLUENCINGTYPESOFCARGOPACKINGFORINTERNATIONALCONSIGNMENTS

1).Natureofcargo

Packingshouldbedesignedaccordingtotheneedofthecargo.Cargoeslikegrains,crudeoil,ingotaluminum,steelandautomobilesareshippedbulkorwithonlyminimalpacking.Generalmerchandisesneedadequatepackingofvarioustypes.Forexample,fruitsareusuallyshipped.Besides,thevalueshouldalsobeconsidered.High-valuegoodsnormallyrequiremoreextensivepacking.

2).Transport

Inadditiontothenatureofcargo,manyotherfactorsinrelationtotransportshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Tobeginwith,oneshouldconsiderthenatureoftransit.Whencontainersareused,packingcanbelessextensiveasthecontaineritselfofferseffectiveprotectiontothecargo.Ifcargoesareshippedbyairorpalletalization,thepackingshouldbestrongerthanthatforcontainerization.Inoceantransport,cargoesshouldbemorecarefullypackedwithevenstrongermaterials.

3).Customsorstatutoryrequirements

Thisisparticularlyrelevanttodangerouscargoestowhichstrictregulationsapplyconcerningacceptance,packing,stowage,documentation,andmarkingandcarrierliability.Forinstance,incountriessuchasJapan,Canada,IraqandNewZealand,strawisunacceptablebylawaspackingortonnagematerial.Ifwoodistobeusedaspackingmaterial,itshouldbesuitablytreated,forexample,fumigated,tokillanypestsinside.Itisadvisabletoobtainacertificatetoprovethepropertreatmentofthepackingmaterial.

4).Insuranceacceptanceconditions

Packingmustmeettheprescribedpackingspecificationsforparticularlyfragilecargoesandcargoeswithabadrecordofdamageandpilferage,otherwisetheinsurancecompanywillrefusetocoverthemorrefusetocoverthemataregularrate.

5).Cost

Packingshouldbeeconomicalaswellasadequate.Somepackingmaterialshaveresalevalueinsomecountriesandthatcanhelpreducethepackingcost.

6).Easeofhandlingandstowage

Forirregular-shapedcargo,itisespeciallyimportanttocorrectlydesignthepackingtomakethehandlingaseasyaspossible.Thishelpsensurethesafetyofthecargo,reducehandlingchargesandinsurancepremium,andutilizetransportcapacitytoitsmaximum.

3.IMPROVEMENTSNEEDED

Internationalconsignmentstravelalongway,alongtime,indifferentweatherandbydifferentmodes.Exportersshouldconstantlyimprovecargopackingtobemorecompetitiveintheworldmarket.

1).Thestandardsofpacking

Thestandardsofpackingshouldbeimprovedtoreducerisksofdamageandpilferage.Theimprovedstandardswouldhelpgetmorefavorablecargoinsurancepremiumandhelpmaintaingoodrelationswithimporters.

2).Theutilizationoftransportcapacity

Theutilizationoftransportcapacityshouldbemaximizedtolowerdistributioncost.Since80%ofcargoismeasuredbyvolumeratherthanbyweightininternationaltrade,itisimportanttokeepbrokenstowagetominimum,particularlyforISOcontainerization.Bydoingso,boththecostofdistributionandtheriskofdamagearereduced.Besides,theneedtousetonnageisalsoreduced.

3).Designofcargopacking

Designofcargopacking(shape&dimension)shouldfacilitatethemosteconomicalmethodofhandling.Asmechanicalcargohandlingequipmentcanreducelaborcostandspeedupcargohandling,packingshouldbedesignedtofittheuseoftheequipment.Ifcargomustbehandledbyhand,packingshouldhavesuitablesizeanddesign.Forinstance,cartonsforhomeappliancesoftenhaveoneapertureoneachsidetomakethehandlingeasier.

4).Thepackingcost

Thepackingcostshouldbeminimizedprovidedthatthepackingisadequate.Theneedofeachoverseassalescontractshouldbeconsideredindividually.Thebestresultscanbeachievedwhenmodesoftransport,typesofcommoditiesandtransitrouting,etchaveallbeencarefullyconsidered.

4.TYPESOFPACKING

1)Bale

Abaleisaheapofmaterialpressedtogetherandtiedwithropeormetalwire.Itismostsuitabletopaper,wool,cotton,andcarpets,etc.

Baleisaneffective,low-costandeasy-tohandlemodeofpacking,butitonlyofferslimitedprotectiontocargoes.

2).Bags

Bagscanbemadeofcotton,plastic,paperorjute(fiberfromtheouterskinofcertainplants).Theyareidealforcement,fertilizer,flour,chemicalsandmanyconsumerproducts.

Theiradvantageislowcostandthedisadvantageistheirvulnerabilitytodamagebywater,sweat,leakageandbreakage.

3).Barrel/drum

Thistypeofcontainerismadeofwood,plastic,ormetal.Itisusedforliquidorgreasycargoessuchascasingforsausage.

Theadvantageistheresalevalueinsomecountiesandthedisadvantageisthatametaldrumcangetrustyandresultedinleakageifthecontainerisnotsealedproperly.

4).Box/case

Acaseismadeofwoodandvariesinsize.Somecasesarelinedtocreateairtightpacking.

Theadvantagesareitsresalevalueinsomecountries,itsreliableprotectionforexpensivecargoessuchasequipmentandcaraccessories,itsstrengthagainsttheriskofpilferage,andtheeaseofhandling.Thedisadvantageisitshighcost.Itisgettinglesspopularbecauseofincreasingcontainerizationandrisingcostoftimber.

5).Glasscontainer

Thistypeofpackingisoftenusedfordangerousliquidcargoessuchasacids.Itprotectsworkersandtransportvehiclesbutrequiremorecarefulhandling.

6).Carton

Cartonsarenowaverycommonformofpackingwiththedevelopmentofcontainerizationandpalletization,particularlyforconsumerproducts.

Cartonshaveseveraladvantages.Foronething,theyarerelativelyinexpensive.Theyarealsoexpandableandthereforeeasytohandleandstow.Cartonsalsomarkingaswordscanbeprintedonthem.Thedisadvantageistheirsusceptibilitytocrushingandpilferage.

7).Crate/skeletoncase

Thisformofpackingishalfwaybetweenabaleandacaseandhasawoodenstructure.Itisoftenusedforlightweightgoodsoflargecubiccapacitysuchasmachineryanddomesticappliances.

5.STOWAGEOFCARGO

Factorstoconsiderinthestowageofcargo

1).Thebestpossibleuseoftheavailabledeadweightorcubiccapacitytokeepbrokenstowagetominimum.

2).Preventionofdamagetotransportvehicles

Ifsomebrokenstowageisunavoidable,tonnagemustbeusedtokeepthecargostabletopreventshiftingandensurethesafetyofthetransportvehicle.

3).Propersegregationofcargoes

Cargoesofdifferentnatureshouldbeproperlyseparated.Forexample,orangesarenottobecloselystowedtotea;andheavytoolsarenottobeplacedontopofchinaware.

4).Propersegregationofconsignments

Topreventdelayindistributionandtoavoidduplicatedhandling,cargoesshouldbeloadedorstowedbytherightorder.Thecargothatisgoingtobeunloadedfirstshouldbeloadedlast,forinstance.

6.MARKINGOFCARGO

1.Typesofmark

1).Shippingmarks

Shippingmarksareusedforidentificationofshipmentduringtransittoensuresmoothandpromptdelivery.Shippingmarksnormallyincludethefollowinginformation.

2).Indicativemarks

Indicativemarksgiveinstructionstofacilitatethesmoothhandlingofthecargothatneedsspecialcare.

3).Warningmarks

Whendangerousgoodsareshipped,warningmarksareusedtoavoidanypossibleharmtoworkersanddamagetotransportvehicles.

2.Markingrequirement

1).Userecognizedinternationalcargomarkingsymbols

DesignedbyinternationalorganizationssuchasISOandInternationalAirTransportAssociation(IATA),somecargomarkingsymbolsareeasilyrecognizedandwidelyused.Theuseofthosesymbolsareeasilyrecognizedandwidelyused.Theuseofthosesymbolsnotonlyhelpsidentifythecargobutalsoenhancesthechancesofacceptancebyforeignauthorities,assomecountriesrequiretheuseofinternationalsymbols.

2).Makemarksvisible

Marksshouldhavetherightplacementonthepackage,i.e.,theyshouldbeplacedneitheronthetopnorthebottomofalargepackagebutontheside(s)andtheyshouldnotbecoveredbybindings

3).Makemarkslegible

Marksshouldbemadeeasytoreadintermsoflanguage,sizeandhandwriting.Englishistheinternationallanguage,particularlyforcommerce;thesizeoflettersshouldbeproportionatetothesizeofpackage;andalllettersshouldbeneatandwrittenincapitals.

4).Makemarksindelible

Marksshouldnotruboffeasily.Theinkusedtomakemarksshouldbewaterproof.Inaddition,thecoloroftheinkshouldstandoutagainstthecolorofpackage.

Chapter4

Transport

〔四〕Detailedstudyofthetext

Transportisessentialfortheexploitationordevelopmentofeconomicresourcesbecauseitallowsarticlesormaterialstobeconveyedfromareasoflowutilitytoareasofhighutility.Withouttransport,internationaltradewouldnotbepossible.

1.OCEANTRANSPORT

Oceantransporthasbeenthemostimportantmodeoftransportininternationaltrade.Two-thirdsoftheworldtotalvolumeandover80%ofChina'simportsandexportsnowaretransportedbysea.

1).Advantagesanddisadvantages

Oceantransporthasmanyadvantages.Thefirstadvantageistheeasypassagesinceabout70%oftheearthiscoveredbywater.Secondly,ocean