2023年考研英語(yǔ)一真題原文及答案解析完整版

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,C

orDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,C

orDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissue

recently.Thecourtcannot_1_itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_2_justicesbehave

likepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat_3_thecourt'sreputationfor

beingindependentandimpartial.

JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindofactivitymakes

itlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartialjudgments.Partoftheproblemis

thatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.Attheveryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitself_6_to

thecodeofconductthat_7_totherestofthefederaljudiciary.

Thisandothersimilarcases_8_thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla_9_betweenthecourt

andpolitics.

TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_10_havingauthorityapartfrompolitics.

Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_1l_theywouldbefreeto_12_thoseinpowerandhave

noneedto_13_politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtosetlawapartfrompolitics

preciselybecausetheyaresoclosely_14_.

Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamentalsocial

__15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,thelawit_16_

isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallinesaresoeasily_17_as

unjust.

Thejusticesmust_18_doubtsaboutthecouifslegitimacybymakingthemselves_19_to

thecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobeseenasseparatefrompoliticsand,

_20_,convincingaslaw.

1.[A]emphasize[B]maintain[C]modify[D]recognize

2.[A]when[Bllest[C]before[D]unless

3.[AJrestored[B]weakened[CJestablished[D]eliminated

4.[A]challenged[B]compromised[C]suspected[D]accepted

5.[A]advanced[B]caught[C]boundfD]founded

6.[A]resistant[B]subject[Climmune[D]prone

7.[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies

8.[A]evade[B]raise[C]deny[D]settle

9.[Alline[B]barrier[C]similarity[D]conflict

10.[A]by[B]as[C]though[D]towards

11.[A]so[B]since[C]provided[D]though

12.[A]serve[B]satisfy[C]upset[D]replace

13.[A]confirm[B]express[C]cultivate[D]offer

14.[A]guarded[B]followed[C]studied[DJtied

15.[A]concepts[B]theories[Cidivisions[D]conceptions

16.[AJexcludes[B]questions[C]shapes[D]controls

17.[AJdismissedIBJreleased[CJranked[D]distorted

18.[A]suppress[B]exploit[C]address[D]ignore

19.[A]accessible[B]amiable[C]agreeable[D]accountable

20.LAJbyallmesns[BJatallcosts[CJinaword[D]asaresult

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,Cor

D.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalfforcing,is

whatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusuallyleadstono

good-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,TinaRosenbergcontends

thatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhich

organizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheir

livesandpossiblytheword.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocialcurein

action:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHaze

setsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownas

LoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthe

lamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressurefor

healthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology.,,Daretobe

different,pleasedon'tsmoke!”pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamong

teenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythat

public-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.

Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.Jointhe

Clubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialand

biologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthesocialcureas

it'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywellforverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailed

oncestatefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesis

limitedandmixed.

There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.An

emergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegativeones-spread

throughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:we

unconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectourpeer

groupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.Ifsliketheteacherwhobreaksupthe

troublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.Thetacticnever

reallyworks.Andthat'stheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:inthereal

world,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas

[A]asupplementtothesocialcure

[B]astimulustogroupdynamics

[C]anobstacletoschoolprogress

ID]acauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould

fA]recruitprofessionaladvertisers

[B]learnfromadvertisers9experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto

fA]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

[B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

[D]producealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors

[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends

[B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit

[D]canproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis

[A]harmful

[BJdesirable

[Clprofound

[D]questionable

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,Cor

D.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalfforcing,is

whatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusuallyleadstono

good-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,TinaRosenbergcontends

thatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhich

organizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheir

livesandpossiblytheword.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocialcurein

action:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHaze

setsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownas

LoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthe

lamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressurefor

healthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology.,,Daretobe

different,pleasedon'tsmoke!”pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamong

teenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythat

public-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.

Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.Jointhe

Clubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialand

biologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthesocialcureas

it'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywellforverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailed

oncestatefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesis

limitedandmixed.

There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.An

emergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegativeones-spread

throughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:we

unconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectourpeer

groupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.Ifsliketheteacherwhobreaksupthe

troublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.Thetacticnever

reallyworks.Andthafstheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:inthereal

world,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas

[A]asupplementtothesocialcure

[B]astimulustogroupdynamics

[Clanobstacletoschoolprogress

[D]acauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould

[A]recruitprofessionaladvertisers

[B]learnfromadvertisers5experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto

[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

[B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

[CJillustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

[Dlproducealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors

[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends

[B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit

ID]canproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis

[A]harmful

[BJdesirable

[C]profound

[D]questionable

Text3

Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingtobe

observedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarryouttheir

work.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsanambiguousand

complicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelife

experience.Priorknowledgeandinterestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkour

experiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,

andself-deceptionabound.

Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similartonewly

stakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutinyandacceptanceto

transformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthecredibilityprocess,throughwhich

theindividualresearcher'sme,here,nowbecomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.

Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthestartingpoint.

Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.But,

unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.Withinthe

complexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmakediscoveries;editorsand

reviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthepublicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenew

findingtosuittheirownpurposes;andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthe

newdiscoveryandpossiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthe

community,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefsaboutthe

scienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividuafsdiscoveryclaimintothe

community'scrediblediscovery.

Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificworktendstofocus

onsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.Littlereward

accompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalis

new-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcredible

discoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeand

potentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequently

provokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyioncedescribed

discoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought."But

thinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchange

theirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedand

appreciated.

Intheend,credibility“happens“toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthatcorrespondstowhat

philosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind."Wereasontogether,

challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoningandeachother'sconceptionsofreason.

31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyits

[A]uncertaintyandcomplexity.

[BJmisconceptionanddeceptiveness.

[C]logicalityandobjectivity.

[D]systematicnessandregularity.

32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires

[A]strictinspection.

[B]sharedefforts.

[C]individualwisdom.

[D]persistentinnovation.

33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit

[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.

[B]hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.

[CJhasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.

[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists.

34.AlbertSzent-Gy?rgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat

[A]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.

[B]discoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.

[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.

LDJscientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.

35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?

[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

[BJCollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

[D]ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivil

servant.WhenHoffa'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmerican

governmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2023thenumberofunionistsin

America'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.InBritain,more

thanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.

Therearethreereasonsfbrthepublic-sectorunions'thriving.First,theycanshutthings

downwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyaremostlybrightand

well-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversitydegree.Third,they

nowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirtiesgobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,

asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,

oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.

Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareofthePublic

PolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetispatrolledbyunions.The

teachers,unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupson

healthcare.

Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivateone.

Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshaverepeatedly“backloaded”

public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingtoholidaysandespecially

pensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

Refonnhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,wherecharter

schools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Eventhoughthereisplentyof

evidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,teachers9unionshave

foughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.

Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclampdown.In

WisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,thehardline

Republicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.

JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofcultureinWestern

civilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.TheonlyAmerican

public-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversitysportscoachesandthe

presidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers'fatpaypacketshaveattractedmuchcriticism,buta

public-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemfor

America.

36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat

[A]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.

[BJJimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.

[C]unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.

[D]thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.

37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?

[A]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

[B]Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.

[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

[D]Public-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris

[A]illegallysecured.

[B]indirectlyaugmented.

[C]excessivelyincreased.

LDJfairlyadjusted.

39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions

[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.

[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.

[C]maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.

[D]aredominantinthegovernment.

40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof

[A]disapprovaL

[B]appreciation.

[CJtolerance.

[DIindifference.

PartB

Directions:

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,choosethe

mostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextra

choices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10

points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethat

youareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,

oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.

Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursand

visionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprinting

press,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemail

carrier.(41)

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthe

modeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraiseandcritique.The

computeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwithcaution.

(42)1callitasecretwarfbrtworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrong

commercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,themajorityof

peoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhat

theyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yet

forthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareunique

intheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluous

materialgoods-paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,

literature,religionandphilosophy.(43)

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownload

mode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,witha

smallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifying

thatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksof

anyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.

(45)Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof

“stickiness”-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

[A]Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureand

ultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,but

failingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.

[B]Applicationsliketumblr,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandother

mediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,

entertainingandenlighteningothers.

[C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalso

managedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.

[D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloading

anduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whoseoutcomewillshapeour

collectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.

[E]Thechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformat

beingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers.

[F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepast

half-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium-television-

andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.

[G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,to

encouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.

PartC

Directions:

ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.

YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientific

enterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton'slawsofmotion

andDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframe

work.

(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,andseeksa

theoryofeverything-asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.ltisbecominglessclear,however,

thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensionsanduniversesthatitmight

entail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.

(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseems

reasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.

Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexual

selection,perhapstheworld'slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryare

governedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenable

ustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryor

cognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetoday

suppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsider

theevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.

ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,whosuggestedthat

humansarebornwithaninnatelanguage-acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.A

fewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,

whichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly.

(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversality

identifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredto

representbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraints

Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthat

betweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky,sgrammarshouldshowpatterns

oflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit.

WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesof

word-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysis,suggestingthatthe

structuresofthelanguagesarelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversals

SectionIIIWriting

PartA

51.Directions:

Someinternationalsstudentsarecomingtoyouruniversity.Writethemanemailinthename

oftheStudents'Unionto