Houetal.CarbonNeutralSystems (2025)1:3

/10.1007/s44438-025-00003-1

CarbonNeutralSystems

RESEARCH OpenAccess

Strategiestowardcarbonneutrality:comparativeanalysisofChina,USA,andGermany

MichaelZ.Hou1,JiashunLuo1,2*,LiangchaoHuang1*,Hans?PeterBeck3,FaisalMehmood4,QichenWang1,XuningWu1,2,LinWu1,2,YeYue1,YanliFang1,QianjunChen1,YilinGuo1,TianZhang1,JinhuaMao1,2,NanCai1,2,YingXiong2,TianleShi1andRuZhang5

Abstract

Thegrowingthreatofglobalwarmingmakesiturgenttoreducecarbonemissionsandcombatclimatechange.Achievingcarbonneutralityisakeystrategytoaddressthesechallengesandmovetowardsasustainable,low?carbonfuture.Comparingthecarbonneutralitystrategiesofdifferentcountriesandlearningfromeachother’sstrengths

andcollaborating,nationscantacklesharedchallengesmoreeffectively.Thisstudyprovidesacomparativeanalysis

ofcarbonneutralitystrategiesadoptedbyChina,theUSA,andGermany,examiningtheirrespectivelegalframeworks,energytransitions,andtechnologicalinnovations.WhileGermanyhasestablishedstronglegislativesupportandregu?latorymeasurestopromoterenewableenergyandreducefossilfueldependency,theUSA’sapproachhasbeenmarkedbypolicyfluctuationsduetopoliticalshifts,impactinglong?termclimatestrategies.Incontrast,China’srapidprogressinrenewableenergy,includingwindpower,photovoltaics,andelectricvehicles,underscoresitsuniqueinstitutionalefficiencyandmarket?drivendynamics.Thestudyexploreshoweachnation’spathtocarbonneutralityandglobalrole,emphasizesthenecessityofinternationalcooperation.Byleveragingtheirstrengths,thesecountriescancollectivelyshapetheglobalclimateagenda,settingthestagefortransformativecollaborationtowardssustain?ableenergysolutionsandcarbonreduction.

Highlights

ThisstudycomparesthecarbonneutralitystrategiesofChina,theUSA,andGermany,highlightingtheirdifferencesandsimilarities.

Itidentifiesachievementsandchallengesinthecarbonneutralityeffortsofthethreenations.

Itprovidesinsightsandrecommendationsforglobalcarbonneutralityefforts,stressingtheneedforinternationalcooperation.

KeywordsCarbonneutrality,Strategies,China,USA,Germany,Comparativeanalysis,Challenges

*Correspondence:

JiashunLuojiashun.luo@tu?clausthal.deLiangchaoHuangliangchao.huang@tu?clausthal.de

Fulllistofauthorinformationisavailableattheendofthearticle

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Introduction

Carbonneutrality,wherecarbonemissionsarebalancedbycarbonsinksoroffsettingmeasures,hasemergedasanessentialstrategyforaddressingclimatechange.Asglobaltemperaturesriseandclimate-relateddisastersbecomemorefrequent,achievingcarbonneutralityhasbecomeimperativeformitigatingtheadverseeffectsofgreenhousegasemissionsontheenvironmentandhumanhealth.

China,astheworld’slargestindustrialcountryandtopcarbonemitter(seeFig.

1

),holdsacriticalroleinshapingglobalemissionstrends.Similarly,theUSA,knownforitseconomicprowessandinnovation,wieldsconsiderableinfluenceinindustrialandtechnologicalspheresworld-wide.Germany,positionedattheheartofEurope,servesasakeyplayerinthecontinent’sindustrialandeconomiclandscape.Notably,eachcountryexhibitsauniqueenergystructure,withChinaheavilyreliantoncoal,theUSAprimarilydrivenbyoilandnaturalgas,andGer-manygraduallytransitioningtowardsrenewableenergy,particularlyinrecentyears.TheselectionofChina,theUSA,andGermanyforcomparativeanalysisinthisstudyisrootedintheirsignificantglobalinfluenceanddistinctenergyprofiles,whichrepresentthelargestenergymar-ketsinAsia,NorthAmerica,andEuropeanUnion.

Figure

2

illustratestheprimaryenergyconsumptionsourcesforChina,theUSA,andGermany.Specifically,China’sprimaryenergyconsumptionispredominantlysourcedfromcoal,accountingforasubstantial56.20%,followedbypetroleumandnaturalgas.Renewableenergyandnuclearpowerconstituterelativelylowerproportions

ofChina’senergymix.TheUSA’senergyconsumptionisheavilyconcentratedinpetroleum,naturalgas,andcoal,withpetroleumandnaturalgascomprising35.85%and33.41%,respectively.TheproportionofrenewableenergyintheUSA’senergymixisrelativelylower,standingat9.12%.Incontrast,Germanyexhibitsamorediversi-fiedenergystructure,withalowerrelianceoncoalandahigherproportionofrenewableenergy,reaching19.63%.Additionally,Germany’sdependenceonnuclearpowerisrelativelylow,accountingforonly0.74%.

Figure

3

outlinestheelectricitygenerationbysourcealongwiththepercentageofthesesourcesinthetotalelectricitygenerationforChina,theUSA,andGermany.ChinaandtheUSAexhibitasignificantdependenceonfossilfuelsforelectricitygeneration,althoughthedegreeofdependencevaries.Chinaleadswith64.1%,indicatingaheavyrelianceonfossilfuelsforitselectricityneeds.Incontrast,Germanyshowstheleastdependence,whichmayreflectitsprogressinenergytransitionandenhanc-ingtheshareofrenewableenergy.Moreover,Germanystandsoutinitsuseofrenewableenergy,particularlywindandsolarpower.Windandsolarenergyaccountfor29.2%and11.2%,respectively,ofitstotalelectricitygeneration,significantlyhigherthantheproportionsinChinaandtheUSA.ThisindicatesGermany’ssubstantialachievementsinpromotingrenewableenergy,especiallyinthewindandsolarsectors.Inaddition,hydropowerplaysaconsiderableroleinChina’selectricityproduction,accountingfor12.9%,muchhigherthantheUSA(5.3%)andGermany(3.8%).ThedatasuggeststhatGermanyleadsinenergydiversification,particularlyinreducing

Fig.1CarbondioxideemissionsfromenergyofChina,USAandGermany

Fig.2PrimaryenergyconsumptionstructureofChina,USAandGermany

Fig.3ComparisonofelectricitygenerationstructuresinChina,USAandGermany

relianceonfossilfuelsandincreasingtheuseofrenew-ablesources.Incontrast,whileChinaandtheUSAhavemadeprogressincertainareasofrenewableenergy,theyremainhighlydependentonfossilfuels.

China,theUnitedStates,andGermanyhaveeachsetambitiouscarbonneutralitytargets,demonstratingtheircommitmenttoaddressingclimatechange.In2020,Chinaannounceditsgoalofpeakingcarbonemissionsby2030andachievingcarbonneutralityby2060.Mean-while,theUnitedStates,oneofthelargesthistorical

emittersofcarbondioxide,introduceditslong-termclimatestrategyinNovember2021throughtheUnitedStatesLong-TermStrategy:PathwaytoNetZeroEmis-sionsby2050.Thisplanaimstocutgreenhousegasemis-sionsby50–52%by2030relativeto2005levels,achieve100%cleanelectricityby2035,andreachcarbonneu-tralityby2050.TheU.S.hadalreadypeakeditscarbonemissionsin2007.Similarly,Germanyhasimplementedsignificantmeasurestowarddecarbonization.InNovem-ber2019,theGermanFederalParliamentenactedthe

ClimateProtectionLaw,reinforcingitscommitmenttoemissionreductions.AmendmentspassedinJuly2021setagoalofcuttinggreenhousegasemissionsby65%by2030comparedto1990levels—theyearGermanyrecordeditsemissionspeak—whileaimingfornet-zeroemissionsby2045.

Thecomparativeanalysisconductedinthisstudyaimstosynthesizeandsummarizethecarbonneutralitystrat-egiesandactionplansofChina,theUSA,andGermany,leveragingtheirrespectivecircumstancesandexperi-ences.Bycontrastingtheirapproachesandidentifyingkeydifferences,thisstudyprovidesinsightsandrecom-mendationsforaddressinguncertaintiessuchaspolicyadjustmentsandchangesinenergystructures.

Literaturereview

AccordingtostatisticsfromOxfordNetZero(Lang

2023

),asofMay2024,6countrieshaveself-proclaimedachievingcarbonneutrality:Benin(2020),Bhutan(2020),Comoros(2019),Gabon(2020),Guyana(2022),andSuri-name(2019).Morethan150countriesandregionshaveproposed"net-zeroemissions"or"carbonneutrality"cli-mategoals.Amongthem,42countriesandregions(e.g.,Maldives,Finland,Austria)haveenshrinedtheirtargetsinlaw,while50countriesandregions(e.g.,Barbados,Dominica,AntiguaandBarbuda)havementionedcarbonneutralitytargetsintheirpolicydocuments.Additionally,10countriesandregions(e.g.,Denmark,SouthAfrica,SriLanka)havemadeadeclarationorpledge.Finally,54countriesandregions(e.g.,Mauritania,Myanmar,Paki-stan)haveproposedgoalsorarestillintheprocessofdiscussion.ThedetailedinformationislistedinTable

1

.

Carbonemissionsanalysis

Carbonemissionsanalysisiscrucialforunderstandingthescaleofemissionsanddevisingstrategiestoreducethem,aimingtoachievecarbonneutrality.Sectoralcar-bonemissionsanalysis,asavitalaspect,delvesintothecontributionsofdifferentindustriesorsectorstocarbonemissions,enablingtargetedemissionreductionmeas-ures(Chenetal.

2017

).Commonlyusedmethodsforsectoralcarbonemissionsanalysisincludeenvironmen-tally-extendedinput–outputanalysis(EE-IOA),indexdecompositionanalysis(IDA),econometrics,carbonemissioncontrolefficiencyevaluation(CECEE),andsimulation(Huangetal.

2019

).Simulationcanfurtherbecategorizedintocomputablegeneralequilibriummodels(CGEs),integratedassessmentmodels(IAMs),systemdynamics(SD),agent-basedmodeling(ABM),amongothers.Table

2

providesanoverviewoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthesemajormethods.

Anothervitalcomponentofcarbonemissionsanaly-sisiscarbonemissionsmapping,whichplaysacrucialroleindeterminingthespatialcharacteristicsofcarbonemissions.Chenetal.(

2022

)systematicallyreviewedstudiesonmappingdirectandindirectcarbonemis-sions(Chenetal.

2022

).Somemethodscommonlyusedbyresearchersincludespatialsystems,geographicinfor-mationsystem(GIS)maps,andlightdetectionandrang-ing(LiDAR)technology,andothers.Thesemethodscanhelpidentifyareaswithhighemissions,guidepolicyformulation,andmonitoremissionreductionefforts.Inrecentyears,withtherapidadvancementoftechnology,satelliteobservationhasalsobeenemployedformoni-toringcarbonemissions(Wangetal.

2021

).Globally,a

Table1Timelineandstatusofcountriesachieving"net?zeroemissions"or"carbonneutrality"climategoals(Lang

2023

)

Status Counties/Regions

Inlaw Maldives(2030),Finland(2035),Austria(2040),Iceland(2040),Germany(2045),Sweden(2045),Italy,Poland,Netherlands,Belgium,Romania,CzechRepublic,Slovakia,Bulgaria,Croatia,Lithuania,Slovenia,Latvia,Estonia,Cyprus,Malta,Japan,UnitedKingdom,France,SouthKorea,Canada,Spain,Australia,Colombia,Switzerland,Ireland,Chile,Portugal,Hungary,Greece,NewZealand,Slovakia,Croatia,Luxembourg,Cyprus,Fiji,Nigeria(2060)

Inpolicydocument Barbados(2030),Dominica(2030),AntiguaandBarbuda(2040),Nepal(2045),UnitedStatesofAmerica,Brazil,Italy,Vietnam,Argentina,Malaysia,UnitedArabEmirates,Romania,Singapore,Peru,Oman,Ethiopia,Ecuador,Panama,Tunisia,CostaRica,Lithuania,Slovenia,Uruguay,Cambodia,Lebanon,Latvia,Laos,Georgia,PapuaNewGuinea,Namibia,Malta,Liberia,TheGambia,CapeVerde,Andorra,Belize,SolomonIslands,Vanuatu,Tonga,MarshallIslands,Tuvalu,Monaco,Türkiye(2053),China(2060),RussianFederation(2060),SaudiArabia(2060),Ukraine(2060),Kazakhstan(2060),Thailand(2065),India(2070)

Declaration/pledge Denmark(2045),SouthAfrica,SriLanka,Estonia,Armenia,Haiti,Micronesia,Kuwait(2060),Bahrain(2060),Ghana(2070)

Proposed/indiscussionMauritania(2030),Myanmar(2040),Pakistan,Bangladesh,Belgium,Israel,DominicanRepublic,Angola,Sudan,Bulgaria,Tanza?nia,Uganda,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Afghanistan,Zambia,Senegal,BurkinaFaso,Mali,Madagascar,Mozambique,Nicaragua,Guinea,TrinidadandTobago,Kyrgyzstan,Rwanda,Niger,Malawi,Mauritius,Chad,Somalia,Togo,SierraLeone,SouthSudan,TheBahamas,Burundi,Djibouti,Timor?Leste,Lesotho,CentralAfricanRepublic,Guinea?Bissau,Seychelles,SaintLucia,Grenada,SaintVincentandtheGrenadines,SaintKittsandNevis,Samoa,SaoTomeandPrincipe,Kiribati,Palau,Nauru,Eritrea,Yemen,Niue,Indonesia(2060)

Forcountries/regionswithoutspecificinformation,thetimeframeforachieving"Net-ZeroEmissions"or"CarbonNeutrality"ClimateGoalsissetat2050.Additionally,duetotheEuropeanClimateLawbindingEUnationstoachieveclimateneutralityby2050,consideringfairnessandsolidarityamongMembernations,15EUmembernations(underlined)areautomaticallyincludedinin-lawcountries

Table2Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofmethodsforsectoralcarbonemissionsanalysis(summarizedaccordingtoRef(Huangetal.

2019

))

Methods Strengths Weaknesses

EE?IOA Itcanevaluatecarbonemissionsfrombothproductionandconsumptionperspec?tives,andcanbecombinedwithothermethodstoprovidemoredetailedcarbonemissioninformation

IDA Itcanrevealtheimpactofdifferentfactorsoncarbonemissions,withlowdatarequire?ments,easeofapplication,andstraightforwardresultinterpretation

Econometrics Itcandescribethecontributionsofmultiplefactorsorpoliciestocarbonemissionsandoffersawiderangeofmethodologicalandtechnicalchoices

CECEE Thedataenvelopmentanalysis(DEA)methodiscommonlyemployed,offering

theadvantagesofnon?parametricityandtheabilitytouncoverhiddenrelationships

Simulation CGEsTheyarecapableofincorporatingthecomplexinteractionsbetweentheglobal

Thereislargevariabilityinthedata,anddifferentmethodsmayleadtodifferencesinresults

Itcannotcapturespillovereffectsbetweendifferentindustriesorchangesindemand,andcanonlydisplaychangesinmacro?levelvariables

Choosingappropriatemethodsandconductingcorrectstatisticaltestscanbechalleng?ing,andensuringconsistencyandinterpretabilityoftheanalysisresultsmayalsoposedifficulties

Modelselectionandvariableselectioncansignificantlyimpacttheresults,

andtheresultsobtainedfromDEAareefficiencyindicesratherthanspecificestimatesofcarbonemissions

Theyoftenrelyonaseriesofunrealisticassumptions

IAMs

economyandenvironmentalpolicytoaddressclimatechangemitigationchallenges

SD Itcanexplicitlymodeldynamicfeedback,providecomprehensivecausalexplanations,andfacilitatepolicyanalysis

ABMItcancapturedynamicdecision?makingprocessesinvolvingadaptationandevolu?tionarylearningwithouttheneedforpriorknowledgeaboutmacrointerdependen?ciesanddynamics

Evolutionabilityisconstrainedbyinputvalues,makingitdifficulttointerpretthefluc?tuationsinsimulatedresults

Interactionsmaysometimesfailtofullyreflectreality,andthegranularityofmodelinfor?mationmayincreasesensitivitytoemergentoutcomesattheaggregatelevel

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totalofthreeCO2satelliteshavebeenlaunched,includ-ingGOSATlaunchedbyJapanin2009,OCO-2launchedbytheUnitedStatesin2014,andTANSATlaunchedbyChinain2016.Theyhaveeffectivelyimprovedtheabil-ityofcarbonfluxobservation,althoughthereremainsanissueofinsufficientspatialresolutionduetothelimitednumberofsites.Additionally,theSentinel-5PsatellitelaunchedbyEuropehasachievedsignificantresultsintheinversionofgasessuchasCH4,NO2,CO,O3.SatellitemonitoringdatacanbeintegratedintothedigitalEarthtosimulateorpredictcurrentorfutureglobalecosys-tems,therebyeffectivelycontributingtocarbonneutral-ityefforts(Guo

2012

).

Carbonneutralitystrategies

Carbonneutralityisaglobalconsensus,andcountriesshouldformulaterealisticcarbonneutralityplansaccord-ingtotheirnationalcircumstancestoensuretheorderlyprogressofcarbonneutralitystrategies.Currently,themainchallengeforcarbonneutralityistheexcessivedependenceonfossilfuelenergystructures.Fossilfuelsarestilltheprimarysourceofglobalenergysupply,andtheoverconsumptionofnon-renewableenergyhasinten-sifiedproblemssuchasenergyshortages,greenhousegasemissions,climatechange,andenvironmentaldegrada-tion(Wangetal.

2021

).AccordingtotheUSgovernmentreport"TheLong-termStrategyoftheUnitedStates:PathwaystoNet-ZeroGreenhouseGasEmissionsby2050,"energytransitionwillaccountforapproximately70%ofthenation’stotalcarbonreduction(Kerry

2021

).Thus,itisevidentthatoptimizingtheenergystructurecanreducecarbonemissionsattheirsource,andenergytransitionisthemostcrucialandeffectivemethodtoachievecarbonneutrality.

Thedevelopmentofnewenergysourcestosubstitutefossilfuelsistheforemoststepinachievingcarbonneu-trality.Solarenergy,whichoncewasanewandcostlyalternativeenergysource,hasnowexperiencedexpo-nentialgrowthinefficiencyandadramaticdecreaseinproductioncosts(Sunetal.

2022

).Theprogressinphotovoltaicmaterials,particularlythedevelopmentofperovskitesolarcells,hasenhancedefficiencyandsimultaneouslyreducedthecostofsolarinstallations(Ali

2020

).Similarly,windenergyhasundergonenota-bletechnologicaladvancements,andincountriessuchasDenmarkandtheUK,offshorewindfarmsnowpro-videaconsiderableshareofenergy(Suetal.

2021

).Addi-tionally,biomassenergyisalsocrucialforoptimizingtheenergyconsumptionstructure.Benefitingfromfavorablenaturalconditions,biofuelsandwaste-basedrenewableenergyinAfricaaccountforasignificantlyhigherpro-portionofrenewableenergycomparedtootherregions(Canton

2021

).

Althoughresearchonrenewableenergyhassurgedglobally,renewableenergiessuchaswindandsolarpowerareintermittentandfluctuating(Chen

2021

).Con-sequently,itisnecessarytouseenergystoragesystemstostoreelectricitywhenrenewableenergygenerationexceedsdemandandreleaseitwhengenerationisinsuffi-cient,therebyincreasingtheutilizationrateofrenewableenergy.AccordingtothestatisticsfromCNESAGlobalEnergyStorageProjectDatabase,bytheendof2023,thecumulativeinstalledcapacityofoperationalpowerstorageprojectsworldwidereached289.2GW.Specifi-cally,pumpedstorageaccountsforthehighestcumula-tiveinstalledcapacityat67%,whilenewenergystorage(mainlylithium-ionbatteries)hasacumulativeinstalledcapacityof91.3GW,accountingfor31.6%.Lithium-ionbatterystoragehassignificantadvantagesintermsoftechnologyandapplication,especiallyinefficiency,portability,andlongevity.Challengessuchashighcosts,safetyconcerns,andenvironmentalimpactsneedtoberesolvedandimprovedthroughfuturetechnologicaladvancementsandpolicyformulations(Razaetal.

2018

).Nonetheless,innumerousdevelopingcountries,par-ticularlyintheAsia–Pacificregion,coalisutilizedasatraditionalfossilfuelbecauseofitslowcost.Since2003,coalconsumptionhasconsistentlybeenthelargestsourceofcarbondioxideemissions.Whileitisimpracti-caltocompletelyeliminatetheuseofcoalindevelopingcountries,itispossibletomaximizetheefficiencyofcoalresourceutilization.Hence,cleanextraction,efficientcombustion,andenvironmentallyfriendlyutilizationofcoalresourceshavebecomesignificantresearchdomainsinthecoalenergysector.Additionally,giventhegradualdepletionofshallowearthcoalresources,coalextractionisprogressivelyshiftingtowardsdeeperearth,presentingsignificantchallengesforgreen,safe,andefficientdeepcoalproduction.Inthiscontext,Xieetal.proposednewtheoreticalandtechnicalconceptsforfluidizedminingofdeepcoalresources,whichareexpectedtobeasolu-tionforefficientandgreendeepcoalextraction(Xieetal.

2018

).

Beyondrestructuringtheenergysystemtocurbcarbonemissions,industriessuchassteelandcement—majorcontributorstocarbonemissions—offersubstantialpotentialforemissionreductions.Inthesteelsector,emissionscanbemitigatedthroughtheeliminationofoutdatedproductioncapacity,outputcontrol,technolog-icaladvancements,andstructuraloptimization.Amongthesestrategies,hydrogen-basedsteelmakingstandsoutasakeyinnovationforlow-carbonproduction.Tra-ditionalblastfurnacemethodsrequireapproximately300kgofcokeand200kgofpulverizedcoalpertonofpigiron,servingasreducingagents.Incontrast,hydro-gen-basedsteelmakingreplacescokewithhydrogen,

significantlyloweringoreveneliminatingCO2emissions.Additionally,hydrogencansubstitutecoalasanenergysourceinblastfurnaces,furtherreducingemissions.ThistechnologyhasseenrapidadvancementsinEuro-peancountries,includingGermany,Austria,andSweden(Kushniretal.

2020

).

Thecementindustryischaracterizedbyhighenergyconsumptionandsignificantcarbonemissions,requir-ingapproximately113.5kgofstandardcoalandgener-ating0.8tonsofCO2pertonofcementproduced(Guoetal.

2024

).Carbonemissionsprimarilyresultfromrawmaterialdecomposition(mainlycalciumcarbonate),fuelcombustion,andelectricityconsumption,contributingapproximately55%,33%,and13%,respectively.Giventhesubstantialshareofemissionsfromrawmaterialdecom-positionandfuelcombustion,substitutingbothpresentsakeystrategyforemissionreduction.However,sinceCO2emissionsfromrawmaterialdecompositionareunavoidable,decarbonizingthecementsectorremainsacomplexchallenge.CasestudiesfromChinaindicatethatincorporating60%carbideslagintorawmaterialscanlowerCO2emissionsby40%(LiuandWang

2017

).Nonetheless,factorssuchaspretreatmentrequirements,costs,andpotentialchangesinproductperformanceduetomaterialsubstitutionmustbeconsidered.Regardingfuelalternatives,maximizingcombustionefficiencyandincreasingtheshareoflow-carbonfuelsarecritical.Vari-ouswaste-derivedfuels,includingwasteoil,tires,andmunicipalwaste,offercost-effectivealternatives,thoughtheircombustionefficiencymustbecarefullyassessed(NidheeshandKumar

2019

).

Anotherimportantaspectistheenhancementofcar-bonsinks,whichcanbenaturalorartificial.Regardingnaturalcarbonsinks,afforestationcanincreaseforestedareasandenhancecarbonsequestrationcapacity(Vilénetal.

2016

).Additionally,improvingagriculturallandmanagement,suchasproperfertilization,croprota-tion,andfallowrotation,canincreasesoilorganicmattercontent,therebyaugmentingsoilcarbonsequestrationcapacity(KaneandSolutions

2015

).Moreover,protect-ingmarineecosystems,reducingmarinepollution,andcurbingoverfishingcontributetoenhancingthecarbonsequestrationcapacityofmarineenvironments(McKin-leyetal.

2017

).It’simportanttonotethatecologicalres-torationandrehabilitationarealsocrucial(Lewisetal.

2019

).Forinstance,wetlandrestorationcanboostwet-landvegetationgrowthandincreasecarbonsequestra-tioncapacity.Ecologicalrestorationofriversandcoastalzonescanenhancevegetationcover,reducesoilerosion,andhelpbolstercarbonsequestrationcapacity.

Increasingartificialcarbonsinksmainlyrequiresvig-orousdevelopmentandapplicationofartificialcarbon-negativetechnologies.TakingChinaasanexample,after

2060,artificialcarbon-negativetechnologieswillstillberequiredtoreduceoverabilliontonsofCO2annuallytoachievecarbonneutrality(BoFengetal.

2021

).Spe-cifically,capturedCO2canbedirectlyutilizedinthechemicalindustrytoproduceplastic,fuels,orbio-basedproducts.ThesetechnologiesarecollectivelyknownasCarbonCaptureandUtilization(CCU)(Baena-Morenoetal.

2019

).DespitethefavorableeconomicbenefitsofCCU,itsscaleincarbonreductionislimited.Therefore,itisessentialtovigorouslydevelopcarbon-negativetech-nologiescapableoflarge-scaleCO2sequestration,suchasCarbonCaptureandSequestration(CCS),aswellasCar-bonCapture,Utilization,andSequestration(CCUS).TheformerprimarilyinvolvesdirectlysequesteringcapturedCO2inaquifersordepletedhydrocarbonreservoirs(Piresetal.

2011

).ThelatterinvolvesachievingCO2geologicalsequestrationwhilesimultaneouslyenhancingtheextrac-tionextentorefficiencyofgeologicalenergyorresources(e.g.,oil,naturalgas,geothermal)(Wuetal.

2023a

;Huangetal.

2023

).TobalanceeconomicbenefitswithCO2uti-lizationandsequestrationscale,Houetal.proposedtheCarbonCapture,CircularUtilization,andSequestration(CCCUS)technology,whichinvolvesundergroundbio-chemicalsynthesisofnaturalgasfromCO2(Houetal.

2022

;Wuetal.

2023b

).Thismaybethemostpromisingartificialcarbon-negativetechnologyinachievingcarbonneutrality.

Countryprofiles

CarbonneutralitystrategiesinChina

China’sstrategicplantoachievecarbonneutralityby2060throughkeysectoraltransformationshavebeenoutlinedbyFig.

4

.Theroadmaphighlightsfivemajorareas:OverallClimateAmbition,Net-ZeroEmissionsElectricity,Industry,Architecture,andRoadTransporta-tion.Eachsector’sdecarbonizationeff