上海外國語大學(xué)17級音體美閱讀理解SectionB試題閱讀理解SectionB試題第一套JaguarsDon'tLiveHereAnymoreA)Earlierthismonth,theUnitedStatesFishandWildlifeServiceannounceditwouldappoint"criticalhabitat"fortheendangeredjaguar.Jaguars--theworld'sthird-largestwildcats,weighingupto250pounds,withdistinctiveblackrosettes(玫瑰花色)ontheirfur--areaseparatespeciesfromthesmaller,tawny(黃褐色的)mountainlions,whichstillroamlargeareasoftheAmericanWestintheUnitedStatesandtakethefirststepstowardmandating(批準(zhǔn))ajaguarrecoveryplan.Thisisapolicyreversaland,onthesurface,itmayappeartobeavictoryfortheconservationcommunityandforjaguars,thelargestwildcatsintheWesternHemisphere.B)Butassomeonewhohasstudiedjaguarsfornearlythreedecades,Icantellyouitisnothinglessthanaslapinthefacetogoodscience.What'smore,bychangingtherulesforanimalpreservation,itstandstoweakentheEndangeredSpeciesAct.C)Thedebateonwhattodoaboutjaguarsstartedin1997,when,attheurgingofmanybiologists(includingme),theFishandWildlifeServiceputthejaguarontheUnitedStatesendangeredspecieslist,becausetherehadbeenoccasionalsightingsofthecatscrossingnorthovertheUnitedStates-Mexicoborder.

Atthesametime,however,theagencyruledthatitwouldnotbe"prudent"(謹(jǐn)慎的)todeclarethatthejaguarhascritical.habitat--ageographicareacontainingfeaturesthespeciesneedstosurvive--intheUnitedStates.Determininganendangeredspecies'criticalhabitatisafirststeptowarddevelopingaplanforhelpingthatspeciesrecover.D)The1997decisionnottodeterminecriticalhabitatforthejaguarwastherightone,becauseeventhoughtheycrosstheborderfromtimetotime,jaguarsdon'toccupyanyterritoryinourcountry--andthatprobablymeanstheenvironmenthereisnolongeridealforthem.E)Inprehistorictimes,thesebeautifulcatsinhabitedsignificantareasofthewesternUnitedStates,butinthepast100years,therehavebeenfew,ifany,residentbreedingpopulationshere.Thelasttimeafemalejaguarwithacub(幼獸)wassightedinthiscountrywasintheearly1900s.F)Twowell-intentionedconservationadvocacygroups,theCenterforBiologicalDiversityandDefendersofWildlife,suedtheFishandWildlifeServicetochangeitsruling.Thusin2006,theagencyreassessedthesituationandagaindeterminedthatnoareasintheUnitedStatesmetthedefinitionofcriticalhabitatforthejaguar.Despiteoccasionalsightings,mostlywithin40milesoftheMexicanborder,therewerestillnodatatoindicatejaguarshadtakenupresidenceinsidetheUnitedStates.G)Afterthissecondrulingwasmade,anArizonarancher(牧場主),withsupportfromthestateGameandFishDepartment,setinfrared-camera(紅外攝像機(jī))traps

togethermoredata,andessentiallyconfirmedtheFishandWildlifeService'sfindings.Thecamerasdidcapturetransientjaguars,includingonemalejaguar,nicknamedMacho,B,whoroamedtheArizonaborderlandsformorethanadecade.ButMachoB,nowdead,mighthavebeenthesoleresidentAmericanjaguar,andhisextensivetravelsindicatedhewasnothavinganeasytimesurvivinginthisdry,ruggedregion.H)Despitethecontinuedevidence,thetwoconservationadvocacygroupscontinuedtosuethegovernment.Apparently,theywantjaguarstorepopulatetheUnitedStatesevenifjaguarsdon'twan!to.LastMarch,afederaldistrictjudgeinArizonaorderedtheFishandWildlifeServicetorevisitits2006determinationoncriticalhabitat.I)Thefactshaven'tchanged:thereisstillnoareaintheUnitedStatesessentialtotheconservationofthejaguar.But,havingassertedthistwicealready,theservice,nowunderanewpresident,hasbenttothetiresomelitigation(訴訟).OnJan.12,FishandWildlifeofficials,

claimedtohaveevaluatednewscientificinformationthathadbecomeavailableaftertheJuly2006ruling.TheydeterminedthatitisnowprudenttoappointcriticalhabitatforthejaguarintheUnitedStates.J)ThismeansthatFishandWildlifemustnowalsoformulatearecoveryplanforthejaguar.Andsincejaguarshavenotbeenabletoreestablishthemselvesnaturallyoverthepastcentury,thegovernmentwilllikelyhavetogotosignificantexpensetoattempttobringthemback--especiallyifthecatshavetobereintroduced.K)Sowhynotdoeverythingwecan,atwhatevercost,tobringjaguarsbackintotheUnitedStates?Tobeginwith,theAmericanSouthwestis,atbest,marginalhabitatfortheanimals.Moreimportant,therearebetterwaystohelpjaguars.Southofourborder,fromMexicotoArgentina,thousandsofjaguarsliveandbreedintheirtruecriticalhabitat.Governmentsandconservationgroups(includingtheoneIhead)arealreadyworkinghardtoconservejaguarpopulationsandconnectthemtooneanotherthroughaninitiativecalledtheJaguarCorridor.

L).ThejaguarsthatnowandthencrossintotheUnitedStatesmostlikelycomefromthenorthernmostpopulationofjaguars,inSonora,Mexico.Ratherthandemandjaguarsreturntoourcountry,weshouldhelpMexicoandotherjaguar-rangecountriesconservetheanimals'truehabitatitM)TherecentmovebytheFishandWildlifeServicemeansthattherarefederalfundsdevotedtoprotectingwildanimalswillbewastedoneffortsthatcannothelpsavejaguars.ItalsostandstoweakentheEndangeredSpeciesAct,becauseifcriticalhabitatisredefinedasanyplacewhereaspeciesmighteverhaveexisted,andwhereyouorImightwantittoexistagain,thenthedoorisopenformanyothersenselesseffortstobringbacklong-lostcreatures.N)TheFishandWildlifeofficialswhosejobistoprotectthecountry'swildanimalsneedtogrowastrongerbackbone--stickwiththeiroriginal,correctdecisionandsavetheirmoneyformoreusefulpreservationwork.

Otherwise,whenfundsareneededtopreserveallthosesmall,ugly,non-charismaticendangeredspeciesatthebackoftheline,theremaybenomoneyleft.1.ItisstillafactthatthereisnosuitableplaceforjaguarstolivesafelyintheUnitedStates.

2.TheUnitedStatesFishandWildlifeServiceshouldbemoredeterminedandsavingfortheconservationwork.

3.JaguarswereregardedasendangeredspeciesbecauseoftheirrareappearanceattheUnitedStates-Mexicoborder.

4.MoneywasnotspenteffectivelyinhelpingsavejaguarsintherecentmovebytheFishandWildlifeService.

5.ItcanbeinferredthattheUnitedStatesisnotthebestchoiceforjaguarstolivefromtheevidencethattheydon'tsettleanywherehere.

6.SouthoftheUnitedStates'border,fromMexicotoArgentina,isthetruecriticalhabitatforjaguars.

7.ThenumberofjaguarsbreedingpopulationsinsignificantareasofthewesternUnitedStateshasdeceasedinthepastcentury.

8.Itisnecessaryforthegovernmenttoinvestlotsoffundsinordertohelpjaguarstoreestablish.

9.Itdidn'tindicatethatjaguarshadsettleddownintheUnitedStateseventhoughtheywereseenwithin40milesoftheMexicanborderattimes.

10.FishandWildlifeofficialsweresureenoughtoappointcriticalhabitatforthejaguarintheUnitedStates.閱讀理解SectionB試題第二套HowtoUseaLibraryA)You’redrivingyourcarhomefromworkorsch001．Andsomethinggoeswron9．Theenginestalls

outatlights，holdsbackasyougotopass．Itneedsatuneupandsoon．Wheredoyougo?The

library．Youcantakeoutanautorepairmanualthattellsstepbystephowtotuneupyourmakeand

model．Oryourtennisgamehasfallenoff．You’velostyourtouchatthenet．Wheredoyougo?The

libraryforafewbooksonimprovingyourtennisform．B)“Thelibrary!”yousay．“That’swheremyteachersendsmetodoughhomework．"Unfortunately,

I’vefoundthat’sexactlythewaymanypeoplefeel．Ifyou’reamongthem．you’redenyingyourself

theeasiestwaytoimproveyourself,enjoyyourselfandevencopewithlife．MyfirstsuggestionformakingthemostofyourlibraryistodowhatIdid，readandreadandread．Forpleasure——andforunderstanding．C)Ifit’sTVthatkeepsyoufromcultivatingthisdelicioushabit，Icanofferasureremedy．Takehomefromthelibraryastackofbooksthatmightlookinterestin9．PilethemontheTVset．Nexttimeyou

aretemptedtoturnonaprogramyoureallydon’twanttosee，reachforabookinstead．D)Overtheyears，peoplecollectamentallistofbookstheymeantoread．Ifyoudon’thavesuchalist，hereisthesuggestion．TakefromthelibrarysomeofthebooksyoumighthaveenjoyeddramatizedonTV,likeRemargue’sAllQuietontheWesternFront，Clavell’s

Shegun，Tolkien’sTheHobbit，orVictorHugo’sLesMiseRables．Ifyoulikewhatyouread、youcanfollowupwithothersatisfyingbooksbythesameauthors．E)Somepeopleintheirreadinglimitthemselvestocurrenttalked—aboutbestsellers．Oh，whattheymiss!Thelibraryisfullofyesterday’sbestsellers；andtheystillmakecompellingreadingtoday．SomethatI'veenjoyed：A．B．Guthrie’sTheBigSky，CarlVanDoren’sBenjaminFranklin，MariSandoz’s．OldJules，andNormanMailer’sTheNakedandtheDead．F)Howdoyoufindtheseoranyotherbooksyou’relookingfor?It’seasy—withthecardcatalog．EverytimeIgotothelibrary——andIgomorethanonceaweek——Iinvariablymakeabeelineto

thecardcatalogbeforeanythingelse．It’sthenucleusofanypubliclibrary．Thecardcataloglistseverybookinthelibraryby：1．a(chǎn)uthor；2．title；3．subject．Let’spickaninterestingsubjecttolook

up．Ihavealwaysbeenfascinatedbyastronomy．You’llbesurprisedatthewealthofmaterialyou

willfindunder“astrongmy”todrawupon．Andtheabsorbingbooksyoudidn’tknowexistedonit．

CAUTION：Alwayshaveapencilandpaperwhenyouusethecardcatal09．G)Onceyoujotdownthenumbersofthebooksyouareinterestedin，youarereadytofindthemonthe

shelves．Librariescalltheshelves“thestacks”．Inmanysmallerlibraries，whichyou’llbeusing，thestackswillbeopenforyoutobrowse．TomethereisaspecialthrillintrackingdownthebooksIwantinthestacks!Forinvariably,IfindbooksaboutwhichIknewnothing，andtheseoftenturnouttobetheveryoneslneed．Youwillfindthesamethinghappeningtoyouwhenyoustarttobrowseinthestacks．“Alearnedmindistheendproductofbrowsing．”

CAUTION：Ifyoutakeabookfromthestackstoyourworkdesk，donottrytoreturnittoitsproperplace．That’sworkfortheexperts．Ifyoureplaceitincorrectly,thenextseekerwon’tbeabletofindit．H)Someofthebrightestandbest．informedmenandwomeninAmericaarethelibrarianswhospecializeinprovidingreferencehelp．IntroduceyourselfStateyourproblem．Andbeamazedathowmuchhepyouwillreceive．CAUTION：Don’twastethetimeofthisexpertbyaskingsillyquestionsyououghttosolveyourself．Savethereferencelibrarianforthereallybigones．I)

Youshot：ldalsolearntousetheReader'sGuidetoPeriodicalLiterature．Thisgreen—boundindexismeofthemostusefulitemsinanylibrary．Itindexesallthearticlesinthemajormagazines，includingnewspapermagazinesupplements．Thusitprovidesaguidetotheverylatestexpertinformationofanysubjectthatinterestsyou．Soifyouwanttodoareallyfirst—classjob，findoutwhichmagazinesyourlibrarysubscribesto，thenconsulttheReader'sGuideandtrackdownrecentarticlesonyoursubject．Whenyouusethiswonderfultooleffectively,youshowthemarkofarealscholar．J)

Sinceyoucantakemostbookshome，butnotmagazines，takefullnoteswhenusingthelatter．Manylibrariestodayprovideareprographicmachinethatcanquicklycopypagesyouneedfrommagazinesandbooks．Askaboutit：Ifyouareworkingonaprojectofsomesizewhichwillrequirerepeatedlibraryvisits，keepasmallnotebookinwhichyourecordtheidentificationnumbersofthebooksyouwillbeusingfrequently．Thiswillsaveyouvaluabletime，becauseyouwon’thavetoconsultthecardcatalogorsearchaimlesslythroughthestackseachtimeyouvisitformaterialyouseek．Solfieoftheverybestbooksinanylibraryarethereferencebooks，whichmaynotbetaken

home．Learnwhattopicstheycoverandhowbesttousethem，forthesebooksarewonderfulrepositories(儲藏室、資料庫)ofhumanknowledge．

K)Yourlibrarycangiveyouhelponanysubject．Itcanevenbeyourbusinessandlegaladvisor．Howmanytimeshaveyouscratchedyourheadoverhowtogetataxrebate(折扣)onyoursummerjob?You，11findguidestothat．Wanttodefendyourselfintrafficcoup?Findouthowinlegalbooks

atthelibrary．L)LibraryProjectsCanBeFunandRewardin9．Hereareafewideas：

1．Whatareyourroots?Traceyourancestors．Manylibrariesspecializeingenealogy．

2．DidGeorgeWashingtonsleepnearby?Or

BillytheKid?Yourlibrary’scollectionoflocalhistorybookscanputyouonthetrail．

3．CookaPolynesianfeast．OranancientRomanbanquet．Readhowinthelibrary’scookbooks．

4．Takeupphotography．Checkthelibraryforconsumerreviewsofcamerasbeforeyoubuy．Takeoutbooksonlightin9，composition，ordarkroomtechniquesor—younameit!M)Ifyouhaven，tdetectedbynowmyenthusiasmforlibraries，letmeoffertwopersonalnotes．I'm

particularlypleasedthatinrecentyearstwobeautifullibrarieshavebeennamedafterme：asmall

communitylibraryinQuakertown，Pennsylvania，andthehugeresearchlibrarylocatedattheUniversityofNorthernColoradoinGreeley．AndIlikelibrariessomuchthatImarriedalibrarian．1．Thenucleusofanypubliclibraryisthecar，dcatalog．

2．Yesterday’sbestsellersarestillgoodforreadin9，whichshouldn’tbeoverlooked．

3．Theauthorsuggeststhatpeopleshouldgotothelibraryforanswerswhenthingsgowrong

4．TheReader，sGuideisagreen—boundindexwhichprovidesaguidetoverylatestexpertinformationofanysubjectthatinterestsreaders．

5．ThesureremedytokicktheTVhabitistotakehomefromthelibraryinterestingbookstoread．

6．Therearevariouskindsoffunandrewardingprojectsavailableindifferentlibraries．

7．Anotebookwillhelpreaderstorecordtheidentificationnumbersofthefrequentlyusedbooks

whichcan’tbetakenhome．

8．Readersshouldnottrytoreturnthebooktakenfromthestackstotheirdesktoitsproperplace．

9．Whenaskingforhelp，readersaresuggestednotaskingthereferencelibrarianssillyquestionsthey

oughttosolvethemselves．

10．Whenaskingforhelp，readersaresuggestednotaskingthereferencelibrarianssillyquestionstheyoughttosolvethemselves．閱讀理解SectionB試題第三套SectionBDirections:Inthissection,youaregoingtoreadapassagewithten

statementsattachedtoit.Eachstatementcontainsinformationgiveninoneoftheparagraphs.Identifytheparagraphfromwhichtheinformationisderived.Youmaychooseaparagraphmorethanonce.Eachparagraphismarkedwithaletter.AnswerthequestionsbymarkingthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet2.Essay-GradingSoftwareOffersProfessorsaBreakA)Imaginetakingacollegeexam,and,insteadofhandinginabluebookandgettingagradefromaprofessorafewweekslater,clickingthe"send"buttonwhenyouaredoneandreceivingagradebackinstantly,youressayscoredbyasoftwareprogram.Andthen,insteadofbeingdonewiththatexam,imaginethatthesystemwouldimmediatelyletyourewritethetesttotrytoimproveyourgrade.B)EdX,thenonprofitenterprisefoundedbyHarvardandtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT)tooffercoursesontheInternet,hasjustintroducedsuchasystemandwillmakeitsautomated(自動的)softwareavailablefreeontheWebtoanyinstitutionthatwantstouseit.Thesoftwareusesartificialintelligencetogradestudentessaysandshortwrittenanswers,freeingprofessorsforothertasks.C)Thenewservicewillbringtheeducationalconsortium(聯(lián)盟)intoagrowingconflictovertheroleofautomationineducation.Althoughautomatedgradingsystemsformultiple-choiceandtrue-falsetestsarenowwidespread,theuseofartificialintelligencetechnologytogradeessayanswershasnotyetreceivedwidespreadacceptancebyeducatorsandhasmanycritics.D)AnantAgarwal,anelectricalengineerwhoispresidentofEdX,predictedthattheinstant-gradingsoftwarewouldbeausefulteachingtool,enablingstudentstotaketestsandwriteessaysoverandoverandimprovethequalityoftheiranswers.Hesaidthetechnologywouldofferdistinctadvantagesoverthetraditionalclassroomsystem,wherestudentsoftenwaitdaysorweeksforgrades."Thereisahugevalueinlearningwithinstantfeedback,"Dr.Agarwalsaid."Studentsaretellingustheylearnmuchbetterwithinstantfeedback."E)Butskeptics(懷疑者)saytheautomatedsystemisnomatchforliveteachers.Onelongtimecritic,LesPerelman,hasdrawnnationalattentionseveraltimesforputtingtogethernonsenseessaysthathavefooledsoftwaregradingprogramsintogivinghighmarks.Hehasalsobeenhighlycriticalofstudiesclaimingthatthesoftwarecompareswelltohumangraders.F)Heisamongagroupofeducatorswholastmonthbegancirculatingapetition(呼吁)opposingautomatedassessmentsoftware.Thegroup,whichcallsitselfProfessionalsAgainstMachineScoringofStudentEssaysinHigh-StakesAssessment,hascollectednearly2,000signatures,includingsomefromfamouspeoplelikeNoamChomsky.G)"Let'sfacetherealitiesofautomaticessayscoring,"thegroup'sstatementreadsinpart."Computerscannot'read'.Theycannotmeasuretheessentialsofeffectivewrittencommunication:accuracy,reasoning,adequacyofevidence,goodsense,ethical(倫理的)position,convincingargument,meaningfulorganization,andclarity,amongothers."H)ButEdXexpectsitssoftwaretobeadoptedwidelybyschoolsanduniversities.ItoffersfreeonlineclassesfromHarvard,MITandtheUniversityofCalifornia-Berkeley;thisfall,itwilladdclassesfromWellesley,GeorgetownandtheUniversityofTexas.Inall,12universitiesparticipateinEdX,whichofferscertificatesforcoursecompletionandhassaidthatitplanstocontinuetoexpandnextyear,includingaddinginternationalschools.I)TheEdXassessmenttoolrequireshumanteachers,orgraders,tofirstgrade100essaysoressayquestions.Thesystemthenusesavarietyofmachine-learningtechniquestotrainitselftobeabletogradeanynumberofessaysoranswersautomaticallyandalmostinstantly.Thesoftwarewillassignagradedependingonthescoringsystemcreatedbytheteacher,whetheritisalettergradeornumerical(數(shù)字的)rank.J)EdXisnotthefirsttousetheautomatedassessmenttechnology,whichdatestoearlycomputersinthe1960s.Thereisnowarangeofcompaniesofferingcommercialprogramstogradewrittentestanswers,andfourstates-Louisiana,NorthDakota,UtahandWestVirginia-areusingsomeformofthetechnologyinsecondaryschools.Afifth,Indiana,hasexperimentedwithit.Insomecasesthesoftwareisusedasa"secondreader",tocheckthereliabilityofthehumangraders.K)ButthegrowinginfluenceoftheEdXconsortiumtosetstandardsislikelytogivethetechnologyaboost.OnTuesday,StanfordannouncedthatitwouldworkwithEdXtodevelopajointeducationalsystemthatwillmakeuseoftheautomatedassessmenttechnology.L)Twostart-ups,CourseraandUdacity,recentlyfoundedbyStanfordfacultymemberstocreate"massiveopenonlinecourses,"orMOOCs,arealsocommittedtoautomatedassessmentsystemsbecauseofthevalueofinstantfeedback."Itallowsstudentstogetimmediatefeedbackontheirwork,sothatlearningturnsintoagame,withstudentsnaturallygravitating(吸引)towardresubmittingtheworkuntiltheygetitright,"saidDaphneRoller,acomputerscientistandafounderofCoursera.M)LastyeartheHewlettFoundation,agrant-makingorganizationsetupbyoneoftheHewlett-Packardfoundersandhiswife,sponsoredtwo$100,000prizesaimedatimprovingsoftwarethatgradesessaysandshortanswers.Morethan150teamsenteredeachcategory.AwinnerofoneoftheHewlettcontests,VikParuchuri,washiredbyEdXtohelpdesignitsassessmentsoftware.N)"Oneofourfocusesistohelpkidslearnhowtothinkcritically,"saidVictorVuchic,aprogramofficerattheHewlettFoundation."It'sprobablyimpossibletodothatwithmultiple-choicetests.Thechallengeisthatthisrequireshumangraders,andsotheycostalotmoreandtheytakealotmoretime."O)MarkD.Shermis,aprofessorattheUniversityofAkroninOhio,supervisedtheHewlettFoundation'scontestonautomatedessayscoringandwroteapaperabouttheexperiment.Inhisview,thetechnology-thoughimperfect-hasaplaceineducationalsettings.P)Withincreasinglylargeclasses,itisimpossibleformostteacherstogivestudentsmeaningfulfeedbackonwritingassignments,hesaid.Plus,henoted,criticsofthetechnologyhavetendedtocomefromthenation'sbestuniversities,wherethelevelofteachingismuchbetterthanatmostschools.Q)"Oftentheycomefromveryfamousinstitutionswhere,infact,theydoamuchbetterjobofprovidingfeedbackthanamachineevercould,"Dr.Shermissaid."Thereseemstobealackofappreciationofwhatisactuallygoingonintherealworld."Someprofessionalsineducationarecollectingsignaturestovoicetheiroppositiontoautomatedessaygrading.Usingsoftwaretogradestudents'essayssavesteacherstimeforotherwork.TheHewlettcontestsaimatimprovingessaygradingsoftware.Thoughtheautomatedgradingsystemiswidelyusedinmultiple-choicetests,automatedessaygradingisstillcriticizedbymanyeducators.Somepeopledon'tbelievethesoftwaregradingsystemcandoasgoodajobashumangraders.Criticsofautomatedessayscoringdonotseemtoknowthetruerealitiesinlessfamousuniversities.Criticsarguemanyimportantaspectsofeffectivewritingcannotbemeasuredbycomputerratingprograms.Asclasssizegrows,mostteachersareunabletogivestudentsvaluablecommentsastohowtoimprovetheirwriting.Theautomatedassessmenttechnologyissometimesusedtodoublechecktheworkofhumangraders.Studentsfindinstantfeedbackhelpsimprovetheirlearningconsiderably.閱讀理解SectionB試題第四套SectionBDirections:Inthissection,youaregoingtoreadapassagewithten

statementsattachedtoit.Eachstatementcontainsinformationgiveninoneoftheparagraphs.Identifytheparagraphfromwhichtheinformationisderived.Youmaychooseaparagraphmorethanonce.Eachparagraphismarkedwithaletter.AnswerthequestionsbymarkingthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet2.ReapingtheRewardsofRisk-TakingA)SinceSteveJobsresignedaschiefexecutiveofApple,muchhasbeensaidabouthimasapeerlessbusinessleaderwhohascreatedimmensewealthforshareholders,andguidedthedesignofhitproductsthataretransformingentireindustries,likemusicandmobilecommunications.B)Alltrue,butlet'sthinkdifferent,toborrowtheApplemarketingsloganofyearsback.Let'slookatMr.Jobsasarolemodel.C)Aboveall,heisaninnovator(創(chuàng)新者).HiscreativeforceisseeninproductssuchastheiPod,iPhone,andiPad,andinnewbusinessmodelsforpricinganddistributingmusicandmobilesoftwareonline.Studiesofinnovationcometothesameconclusion:youcan'tengineerinnovation,butyoucanincreasetheoddsofitoccurring.AndMr.Jobs'careercanbeviewedasaconsistentpursuitofimprovingthoseodds,bothforhimselfandthecompanieshehasled.Mr.Jobs,ofcourse,hasenjoyedsingularsuccess.Butinnovation,broadlydefined,isthecrucialingredientinalleconomicprogress-highergrowthfornations,morecompetitiveproductsforcompanies,andmoreprosperouscareersforindividuals.AndMr.Jobs,manyexpertssay,exemplifieswhatworksintheinnovationgame.D)"WecanlookatandlearnfromSteveJobswhattheessenceofAmericaninnovationis,"saysJohnKao,aninnovationconsultanttocorporationsandgovernments.Manyothernations,Mr.JohnKaonotes,arenowaheadoftheUnitedStatesinproducingwhatareconsideredtherawmaterialsofinnovation.Theseincludegovernmentfinancingforscientificresearch,nationalpoliciestosupportemergingindustries,educationalachievement,engineersandscientistsgraduated,eventhespeedsofInternetbroadbandservice.E)Yetwhatothernationstypicallylack,Mr.Kaoadds,isasocialenvironmentthatencouragesdiversity,experimentation,risk-taking,andcombiningskillsfrommanyfieldsintoproductsthathecalls"recombinantmash-ups(打碎重組),"liketheiPhone,whichredefinedtheSmartphonecategory."Thecultureofothercountriesdoesn'tsupportthekindofinnovationthatSteveJobsexemplifies,asAmericadoes,"Mr.JohnKaosays.F)Workersofeveryrankaretoldthesedaysthatwide-rangingcuriosityandcontinuouslearningarevitaltothrivinginthemoderneconomy.Formaleducationmatters,careercounselorssay,butreal-lifeexperienceisoftenevenmorevaluable.G)Anadoptedchild,growingupinSiliconValley,Mr.Jobsdisplayedthosetraitsearlyon.Hewasfascinatedbyelectronicsasachild,buildingHeathkitdo-it-yourselfprojects,likeradios.Mr.JobsdroppedoutofReedCollegeafteronlyasemesterandtraveledaroundIndiainsearchofspiritualenlightenment,beforereturningtoSiliconValleytofoundApplewithhisfriend,StephenWozniak,anengineeringwizard(奇才).Mr.JobswasforcedoutofApplein1985,wentoffandfoundedtwoothercompanies,NextandPixar,beforereturningtoApplein1996andbecomingchiefexecutivein1997.H)Hispathwasunique,butinnovationexpertssaythepatternofexplorationisnotunusual."It'softenpeoplelikeSteveJobswhocandrawfromadeepreservoirofdiverseexperiencesthatoftengeneratebreakthroughideasandinsights,"saysHalGregersen,aprofessorattheEuropeanInstituteofBusinessAdministration.I)Mr.Gregersenisaco-authorofanewbook,TheInnovator'sDNA,whichisbasedonaneight-yearstudyof5,000entrepreneurs(創(chuàng)業(yè)者)andexecutivesworldwide.Histwocollaboratorsandco-authorsareJeffDyer,aprofessoratBrighamYoungUniversity,andClaytonChristensen,aprofessorattheHarvardBusinessSchool,whose1997bookTheInnovator'sDilemmapopularizedtheconceptof"disruptive(顛覆性的)innovation."J)Theacademicsidentifyfivetraitsthatarecommontothedisruptiveinnovators:questioning,experimenting,observing,associatingandnetworking.Theirbundleofchara