IncollaborationwithWoodMackenzie

DefossilizingIndustry:

Considerationsfor

Scaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways

WHITEPAPER

SEPTEMBER2025

Images:GettyImages,Shutterstock

Contents

Foreword3

Executivesummary4

1Stateofplay5

1.1Theroleofcarboncaptureandutilization5

1.2ThecurrentCCUprojectpipeline8

1.3Utilizationpathways9

1.4WorldEconomicForumUplinkstart-ups11

2Policybarriers13

2.1ThestateofCCUpolicy13

2.2HowpolicycouldsupportCCU16

2.3Considerationsforaddressingpolicybarriers19

3Financialbarriers21

3.1InvestmenttrendsinCCU21

3.2Financialbarriersandenablersalongtheinnovationcurve23

3.3Considerationsforaddressingfinancialbarriers26

4Cross-sectoralcollaboration28

4.1Leveragingcollaborationtorealizegrowth28

4.2Theroleofmulti-stakeholdercollaborations30

4.3Considerationsforcross-sectoralcollaboration32

5Waysforward33

5.1Buildingcredibleanddurablemarketsignals33

5.2Drivingdeploymentinanimmaturemarket34

5.3Collaborationandgovernance35Conclusion37Glossary38Contributors39Endnotes42

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DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways2

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways3

September2025

DefossilizingIndustry:

ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways

Foreword

SimonFlowers

Chairman&ChiefAnalyst,WoodMackenzie

Industrialproductionisthefoundationofthe

globaleconomy,yetitisalsoasignificantsourceofgreenhousegasemissions.Ascountriesand

industrialsectorspursuepathwaystonetzero,thequestionisnotwhethercarbonmanagementis

needed,buthowtodoiteffectively.

Amongtheoptionsavailable,carboncaptureandutilization(CCU)offersapromisingpathwayto

convertcapturedCO2intoproductssuchasfuels,chemicalsandbuildingmaterials–potentially

creatingnewindustrialvaluestreamswhile

reducingrelianceonprimaryfossilfeedstocksandcontributingtoemissionsabatement.

WhileCCUisstillatanearlystage,withhigh

costsandunevenpolicysupport,itspotential

benefitswarrantattention.Policiescurrently

favourcarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)over

utilizationandthisimbalance,combinedwith

limitedmarketsignals,couldshapethedepthandpaceofCCU’sdevelopmentintheyearsahead.WhetherCCUprovestobeameaningfulleverfordecarbonizationwilldependonhowstakeholders

FernandoJ.Gómez

Head,FutureofMaterials,MemberoftheExecutiveCommittee,World

EconomicForum

choosetocreatetherightconditionsforinnovation,deploymentandlearning.

Asmomentumbuildsbehindindustrial

decarbonization,CCUmeritsthorough,context-specificconsideration.Weinvitestakeholders

–includinggovernments,industry,investorsand

researchers–toengageinaclear-eyedassessmentofCCU’srolewithinbroadertransitionstrategies.

ThechallengeistoidentifywhereCCUcandeliverbothclimateandeconomicvalue,andhowtargetedsupportcanacceleratethatprocessaspartofa

largersetofstrategiesdeliveringmoresustainableproductionandemissionsmanagement

Thetaskiscomplex,butalsofullofpossibility.

Withtherightcoordination,sharedambitionandawillingnesstotestsolutions,wecanuncoverwhereCCUtrulyaddsvalue.Byfosteringopen,evidence-baseddialogueandclarifyingthe

conditionsrequiredtoscaleupwhatworks,

decision-makerscanensurethatchoicesaroundCCUaredeliberate,informedandalignedwithasustainableindustrialfuture.

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways4

Executivesummary

CCUoffersthepotentialto“defossilize”

carbon-reliantindustries–butforitto

becomeviable,itrequiressupportivepolicyframeworks,patientcapitalandclose

collaborationacrossstakeholdergroups.

Carboncaptureandutilization(CCU)couldpresentanopportunityforreducingemissionsfromindustrialsupplychainsbyconvertingcapturedCO2andothercarbon-basedemissionsintovaluablecarbon-basedproducts.CCUtechnologiesthereforeofferthe

potentialto“defossilize”industriesthatrelyoncarbonfeedstocks.Afewre-useopportunitiesarealready

mature,suchasureaproductionforuseinfertilizers.Beyondthis,therearetechnologypathwaysfor

reusingcarboninfuels,chemicals,constructionmaterialsandotherpure-carbonproductsbeingdevelopedwithpotentialforclimatebenefits.

However,manyapplicationsofre-usedcarbonremainatpilotanddemonstrationscaleand/orarecommerciallyimmature.BecausetheseCCUtechnologieshaveattractedlessattentionthanmatureapplications,thispaperfocusesonthechallengesthatinnovatorsandfirstmoversface,includingtheirbusinessstrategies.

WhileCCUofferssignificantopportunitiesin

theory,inpracticenascentCCUtechnologies

facemanysystemicbarriers.Thispaperanalysesthreesuchbarriers:

–First,policyframeworksarefragmented

andinconsistentacrossjurisdictionsand

CCUpathways.Thismakesitchallengingforfirstmoverstoseeareliableandsignificant

markettosupportfuturescaling-up,deterringinvestment.Moreover,existingpoliciesheavilyfavoursequestrationoverutilizationand,in

somecases,effectivelycreatedisincentivestoinvestinCCU.

–Second,CCUcompaniesface“valleysof

death”–aswithmanypotentiallyimportantyetnoveltechnologies.Thesearecharacterized

bylongdevelopmenttimelines,highcapitalrequirementsandimmaturebusinessmodelslackingwell-definedroutestorevenue.Thesefactorscreatebarrierstoconventionalearly-stageinvestmentforms,suchastraditionalventurecapital.

–Third,successfuldeploymentofCCU

willrequireunprecedentedcross-sectoralcollaboration–inmostindustrialsupply

chains–betweenCCUcompaniesand

incumbentindustries.Partnershipscanoffer

accesstoinfrastructure,expertiseandmarketchannelstosupportthescaling-upofnascentCCUtechnologies.However,theinherent

complexityoftestingsmall-scale,first-of-a-

kindtechnicalsolutionswithinlarge,mature,

industrialcomplexescanimpedecollaboration.Beyondpracticalissuesoftechnology

integration,cross-industrycollaborationalsohasanimportantroleinadvocacyand

awarenessraising.

Thispaperdiscussesthepotentialrolethat

emergingCCUpathwayscouldplayina

sustainableindustrialtransition;itsynthesizescommunityinsightsintosystemicchallenges

acrosspolicyandfinance;anditlooksatthe

roleofcoordinationacrossstakeholdergroups.

Findingsarepresentedalongsidestrategic

considerationsforfutureCCUinnovatorsandpolicydevelopmentneeds.

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways5

Stateofplay

EmergingCCUpathwayshavethepotentialtoimprovethesustainabilityofindustrialactivitieswhilecreatingnewvalueopportunities.

1.1

Theroleofcarboncaptureandutilization

Carboncaptureandutilization(CCU)hasthe

potentialtobecomeavaluableleverinwidereffortstotransitiontowardssustainableandcircular

economies.ByconvertingcapturedCO2andothercarbonemissionsintocarbon-basedproducts,

Note:technicaltermsusedinthisreportaredefinedina

Glossary

ofterms

attheendofthispaper.

CCUcangeneratevaluefromwastestreamsandpotentiallycontributeemissionsbenefits.

However,CCUpathwaysfacesignificantbarriersintheformofhighcosts,limitedinfrastructureandunderdevelopedmarketframeworks.

Withtheexceptionofafewleadinginitiatives,CCUpathwayscurrentlyreceivelimitedpolicysupport.Incontrast,technologiesthatcaptureandpermanentlystorecarbon,suchascarboncaptureandstorage

(CCS),areattractingmorepolicyandprivatesectorinvestment.Thiscanbeexplainedinpartbythe

relativesimplicityofmodellingCCScomparedto

CCU.CurrentclimatemodelsareunabletoaddressthegranularityofCCU,giventhediversityofsectoralandgeographicalcontexts,aswellasthespecific

technologies,energyandfeedstocksused.1

ThispaperfollowstheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)definitionofCCUwhich

describesitascarbonutilizationwithinaproduct.2ThepaperalsoemphasizesCCUapproachesthathaveyettoemergeatscale.Consequently,the

roleofCCUinenhancedhydrocarbon/oilrecovery(EOR)orureaproductionisnotdiscussed.

1

FIGURE1

TheoreticalnetemissionsbenefitsunderCCUscenarios

CO2utilizationproductend-use

Combustion/decompositionStoredlong-term

CARBONREDUCTION

Reductionofemissionsfrompointsources

Variesdependingonef?ciencyofcaptureandstorage

CARBONAVOIDANCE

Avoidednewfossilemissions

Upto50%reductioncomparedtobaseline

Fossilpointsource/processemissions

CO2capturesource

Notes:

–Finalemissionsbenefitwillbedependentonfulllife-cycleemissions,includingtheemissionsintensityofassociatedhydrogenandotherco-feedstocks,processingemissionsandproductend-use.

–Thetwoupper“storedlong-term”categoriesarebroadlyequivalenttoCCS.

Source:WoodMackenzieanalysis.3

NeutralimpactonatmosphericemissionsNoadditionalCO2addedtocirculation

Removalofatmosphericemissions

Negativeemissions

Biogenic/directaircapture(DAC)

CARBONREMOVAL

CARBONNEUTRAL

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways6

ByconvertingcapturedCO2

andothercarbon

emissionsinto

carbon-based

products,CCU

cangeneratevaluefromwastestreamsandpotentially

contribute

emissionsbenefits.

Fromanemissionsperspective,CCUprovidesanopportunitytoreduceemissionsfromindustrial

valuechains,aswellasemissionsavoidanceandcarbonremovalinsomecases.4CCUcanalso

promotebroaderadoptionofcarboncapture

technologies.Carboncaptureinisolationis

notinherentlyproductiveand,withoutpolicy

support,generallyrepresentsanaddedcostto

conventionalproduction.5However,incombinationwithutilization,thereisanopportunitytooffset

theseadditionalcostsbyintroducinganadditionalrevenuestream,potentiallystackablewith

governmentsubsidies.

CCUisanemergingfieldandcurrentlytherearedifferinginterpretationsofemissionsreductionbenefitsdependingonlife-cycleassumptions

andbaselinesused.6Astechnologypathwaysandapplicationsmature,theevidencebaseofgreenhousegasreductionwillneedtogrow

accordingly,asconfidenceintheseoutcomeswillultimatelydeterminewhetherCCUisscaledup.Figure1representsasimplifieddistillationofoutcomes,whichallassumetheuseof

decarbonizedelectricityandfeedstocks.

ThepotentialemissionsbenefitsfromCCUvarydependingontheend-useoftheutilization

product,storagedurationandcarbonsource.

Iffossilemissionsareutilizedforshortduration

productssuchaschemicalsorfuels,thedirect

impactonnetatmosphericemissionsismodest,althoughitdisplacesanequivalentquantityofnewfossilemissionsthatwouldhaveotherwisebeen

created.Intheory,thisresultsinavoidedemissions,comparedtoascenarioinwhichthefossilcarbonwasnotreused;however,theextentofthiswillbedependentontheefficienciesofcarboncapture

andprocessofconversiontothefinalproduct.7

Forcaptureandutilizationthatresultsinpermanentstorageoffossilcarbon,theresultisareduction

ofemissionscomparedtobusiness-as-usual,

equivalenttoCCS.Giventheirabundance,the

useoffossilpointsourceemissionscouldsupportthescaling-upofCCUtechnologies,providing

economicaswellaspotentialemissionsbenefits.

However,claimsofemissionsbenefitsmustbe

demonstratedwithcradle-to-gravelife-cycle

analysis(LCA)andCCUmustnotbeapplied

toextendthelifeofotherwiseavoidablefossil

emissions.Forutilizationtobenet-neutralorcarbonnegative,biogenicandatmosphericemissions

sourcesmustbeusedasnoadditionalcarbonis

addedintocirculation.8,9,10

Boththecostandavailabilityofcapturedcarbon

emissionswillinfluencethescalabilityofCCU

applications(seeFigure2).Currently,atmosphericemissionsarethemostexpensiveandleast

abundant,withdirectaircapture(DAC)deploymentinitsinfancy.Moreabundantemissionssources

thereforehavethepotentialtobenear-tomid-termenablersofscale.Thisincludesbothpointsourceemissionsfromindustrialsectorswithunavoidableemissions,suchaslimeproduction,waste,and

paperandpulp,inadditiontobiogenicsources

fromethanol,waste,biogasandbioenergyfacilities.

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways7

FIGURE2

CurrentcarboncapturecapacityindevelopmentandcostestimatesofglobalCCU-viableCO2sources

Costofcapture($/tonneCO2)600

Volume(Mtpa)100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

500

400

300

200

100

0

SteelCement

&lime

EthanolDAC

Paper&pulp

WasteBiomass

toenergy

Volumerange2030Volumerange2040Costrange2030Costrange2040

Notes:

–Mtpa=milliontonnesperannum.

–Volumeassumptions:90%capturerate;biogenicand/orunavoidableemissionsshownwherepossible.

–Costassumptions:finalinvestmentdecision(FID)twoyearsbeforeoperation;basedinUSA;1Mtpacapacity;notransportandstorage;nopolicysupport;currenttechnology(otherthanDAC);2030DACcostsreflectrangeofvaluedWoodMackenzieDACprojects;2040DACcostsfollow

expectedcostreductiontrajectory.

Source:WoodMackenzieLensCarbon.

369

Mtpaby2050

VolumeofCO2that

mustbeutilizedinlinewithIEA’sSustainableDevelopmentScenario

Forecastingutilizationvolumesischallenging,giventhediversityofCCUcontextsandtheextentto

whichCO2destinedforsequestrationcouldbe

reprioritizedforfeedstocks.Projectionsvaryacrossstudies,duetodifferingassumptionsandscenarios

–includingthefollowing:11,12,13,14

–Inits2019study,theInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)projectedbetween250and

878milliontonnesperannum(Mtpa)ofCO2utilizationby2060.15

–Initssubsequent2020SpecialReporton

CarbonCaptureUtilisationandStorage,IEAprojectedthat189Mtpaby2030,369Mtpa

by2050and877Mtpaby2070ofcapturedCO2wouldhavetobeutilizedinlinewith

itsSustainableDevelopmentScenario.Thisrepresentsroughly9%ofallcapturedCO2withinthescenario.16

–In2024,theOilandGasClimateInitiative(OGCI)forecastthatbetween430and840MtpaofCO2couldbeutilizedby2040.17

However,incontrasttotheseforecasts,theprojectpipelineofinvestmentsinCCUremainsverylow,

duetosystemicmarketbarrierscurrentlyfacingthesector,withonlyaround21Mtpaindevelopmentto2040(seeFigure3).18

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways8

1.2ThecurrentCCUprojectpipeline

ThecurrentCCUprojectpipelineto2040indicatesthatplannedinvestmentisfocusedtowardsthe

productionoffuels,whichincludespower-to-liquidssustainableaviationfuel(PtLSAF)andmethanol,

withlessercontributionsfromotherchemicals,includingethyleneandpropylene(olefins),andconstructionmaterials.

Ureaproductionisamaturemarkettoday,

predominantlyusingCO2generatedthroughsteammethanereformation.Aproportionofoperating

ureacapacity,around1.44Mtpa,usescapturedCO2frompointsourcesasafeedstock(seeFigure3).Pilot-anddemonstration-scaleplantsmakeupmuchoftheremainingcapacity,principallyacrossfuel,chemicalandbuildingmaterialsapplications.

FIGURE3CCUcapacityoperatingandindevelopment,byfinalproducttype(MtpaCO2)

15.38

1.081.67

1.43

11.59

1.080.600.631.13

0.15

0.74

1.44

Indevelopment(excludesoperatingcapacity)

FuelsChemicalsBuildingmaterialsFoodandagriculturePure-carbonmaterialsUrea

Total:20.82

Total:15.17

Total:3.92

0.300.510.92

1.130.15

Operating203020401

Note:

1.2040in-developmentcapacityincludes2030in-developmentcapacity.Source:WoodMackenzieLensCarbon.

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways9

Geographically,CCUactivityiscurrentlyfocusedwithinregionswhichhostexistingcommerciallymaturesectorsandwherefundingmechanismsorregulatoryframeworksenablefirst-of-a-kind

projects,withconcentrationsofnon-ureaCCUatvaryingstagesofdevelopmentinNorthernand

WesternEurope,theGulfstates,China,Australia,theUSandCanada.19,20,21,22,23,24

Figure4showstheglobaldistributionofCCUprojectsoperatingandindevelopmentupto2040,colour-codedbydevelopmentstatus.Enhancedhydrocarbon/oilrecoveryschemes(EOR)areexcluded.

FIGURE4GlobaldistributionofCCUprojectsoperatingandindevelopmentto2040

JingtangSteelMillLocation:China

Projectowner:ShougangGroup,LanzaTech

Capacity:0.03Mtpa

Start-up:2018

Utilizationproduct:ethanol

MedicineHatMethanolFacility

Location:Canada

Projectowner:Entropy

Capacity:0.146Mtpa

Start-up:2028

Utilizationproduct:methanol

Carbon2BusinessLocation:Germany

Projectowner:Holcim

Capacity:1.2Mtpa

Start-up:2029

Utilizationproduct:multiple

Steelanol

Location:Belgium

Projectowner:ArcelorMittal,LanzaTech

Capacity:0.125Mtpa

Start-up:2022

Utilizationproduct:ethanol

UnitedEthyleneGlycolLocation:SaudiArabia

Projectowner:SABIC

Capacity:0.5Mtpa

Start-up:2015

Utilizationproduct:multiple

eCapt-RhoneLocation:France

Projectowner:Holcim

Capacity:0.2Mtpa

Start-up:2028

Utilizationproduct:e-methanol

OperatingUnderconstructionAdvanceddevelopmentEarly-stagedevelopment

Delayedpre-developmentProspectRetiredCancelled

Notes:

–MtpareferstomassofCO2eutilized.

–Statusdefinitions:underconstruction=FIDtaken;advanceddevelopment=infront-endengineeringdesign(FEED)oradvancedfeasibility,workingtowardsFID;early-stagedevelopment=projectisannouncedandearlyfeasibilityworkisunderway;delayedpre-development=projecthasbeendelayedorsuspendedbutrestartislikely;prospectproject=announcedbutundefined;retired=wasoperationalbuthasended;cancelled=

announcedbutsincecancelled.

Source:WoodMackenzieLensCarbon.

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways10

1.3

Currentforecastsseee-methanol

demandofaround40Mtpaby2050,outofatotal227Mtpaofoverall

globaldemand.

Utilizationpathways

ThereisarangeofemergingCCUpathwaysatdifferentlevelsoftechnologyreadinessandaddressablemarketpotential(seeFigure5).

Applicationsspanagriculture,construction,fuel

andchemicalsmanufacturing,aswellasemergingnext-generationmaterialssuchasgrapheneand

carbonnanotubes.Therelativescaleofthese

applicationsinthecomingdecadeswillbedrivenbyacombinationofdemandinend-usesectors,the

rateoflearningimprovementsandcostreductionsinbothCCUtechnologiesandfeedstockssuchaslow-carbonhydrogen.

Fuelsandchemicals

Methanolrepresentsasignificantmarket

opportunity,giventhewiderangeofdownstreamapplicationsacrossolefins,e-fuelsandmaritime

transport.Currentforecastsseee-methanol

demandofaround40Mtpaby2050,outofa

total227Mtpaofoverallglobaldemand.25This

representsapproximatelyhalfofoveralllow-carbonmethanolproduction.Therewillbepotentialfor

thistogrowfurtherife-methanolbecomesthe

dominantproductionroute;howeveritiscompetingagainstotherlow-carbonapproaches.

Bioethanol/e-Ethanolmaypresentasignificant,butcomparativelylower,marketopportunityasdemandforgasolineisexpectedtodeclineinthecoming

decades.Thetechnologyexistsatnear-commercialscaletoday,withLanzaTechalreadyproducingatsitesaroundtheworld.SAF-producingpathways

benefitfromexistingpolicysupport,particularlyinEuropewithmid-termgrowthpotential.

Useofe-methanecouldplayasimilarroletoalcoholsasafeedstockinchemicalandplasticapplications,aswellasinfuelapplications.

e-Methanebenefitsfromopportunitiestoleverageexistinginfrastructure,aswellasitspotentialasa“drop-in”replacementforfossilmethane.26

Demandforolefinswillbesubstantialby2040,withtheChinesemarketbeingaprimarydriver.

Projectingforwardto2040,globaldemandfor

ethyleneandpropylenederivativescouldbeas

highas519Mtpa.27,28However,steamcracking

iscurrentlymodelledtoprovidethemajorityof

associatedproductioncapacity.MarketpenetrationofCCUintotheolefinssectorwillrequirecost

reductionsincatalyticCO2hydrogenationand/orelectrochemicalCO2conversionpathways,aswellasmethanolandethanolsynthesisfeedinginto

alcohol-to-olefinroutes.29

Regardlessofpathway,thefeasibilityofallCCU-

derivedhydrocarbonproductionwillbestrongly

influencedbythecostandavailabilityofrenewableelectricity,low-carbonhydrogenandCO2.

Buildingmaterials

TheuseofCO2inbuildingmaterials,specifically

CO2-treatedaggregatesandCO2-curedconcrete,arenearcost-competitivetoday,withsignificant

growthpotential.Globalmarketsforthesematerialsalreadyexistatscaleandareforecasttogrow

toover100Gtacrossconcreteandaggregatesby2040.30OnlyaportionofthisdemandislikelytoberealizedbyCO2-treatedproductsand,in

DefossilizingIndustry:ConsiderationsforScaling-upCarbonCaptureandUtilizationPathways11

5

FIGURE

SummaryofemergingCCUpathways,maturityandcostcomparison

Pure-carbonBuildingFuelsandchemicals

materialsmaterials

Conversiontechnologymaturity2

Technologypathway

Theoreticalmarketopportunity(2040)1

Costof?nalproductwithcarbonoxideconversion,relativetoconventional,

non-CCUproduction3

Methanation

2to2.5x

Methane

CO2catalysisCO2electrolysis

Reversewatergasshift

Plantco-feed

1.2to1.5x

Methanol

Gasfermentation

N/A(usedasintermediate)

Ethanol

CO2catalysisCO2electrolysis

Alcohol-to-ole?ns

1.5toover2.5x

1.5toover2.5x

1.0to1.4x

1.5to1.7x

Ole?ns

CO2catalysisCO2electrolysis

Fischer-TropschAlcohol-to-fuel

Fuels

●Carbonatemineralization

CO2-treatedaggregates

CO2-curedconcrete

CO2-injection

abMoltensaltelectrolysis

Carbon

nanotubes

Electrochemicalmaterialsincl.graphite

Carbonblack

N/A

abMoltensaltelectrolysis

N/A

abMethanepyrolysis

Moltensaltelectrolysis

N/A

.

Notes:

1.Basedonexpectationsoftotaltargetmarketsizein2040(notspecifictoCCU).Quartersegmentsreflect1-4scale.1=lowgrowthpotential;2=

mid/large-scalegrowthpotential,butwithcontingenciesorlimitations;3=large-scalegrowthpotentialin100’sMtpa;4=widespread,gigatonne-scaleopportunity

2.1=labscale;2=smallpilotscale;3=industrial-scaledemonstration;4=implementableatcommercialscaletoday.

3.Costmultiplesassumeuseofcheapfeedstocks($2/kgforH2,$100/tonneforCO2)tohighlightrelativecostsofconversiontechnologies.Source:WoodMackenzieLensCarbon.

thecaseofCO2-treatedaggregatesspecifically,

willbelimitedbytheavailabilityofwastematerial

feedstocks.CO2-treatedbuildingmaterialsmay

alsorepresentlong-durationcarbonsinks,creatingopportunitiestochargeproductpremiumsand

sellremovalscreditsifbiogenicoratmospheric

CO2issequestered.31,32,33However,finallife-cycleemissionsarehighlyimpactedbytransportationandprocessingemissions,particularlyiffreshlymined

materialsareusedinplaceofwastematerials.34

Pure-carbonmaterials

Innovativestart-upsaredevelopingtechnologiesfortheconversionofCO2intocarbon-basedmaterialssuchascarbonnanotubesan