IncollaborationwithKo?Holding

HarnessingDigital

TechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagement

inAgriculture

WJRLD

ECCNMIC

FORUM

WHITEPAPERJUNE2025

Images:GettyImages

Contents

Foreword3

Executivesummary4

Introduction5

1Closingthegapinagriculturalwaterefficiency9

1.1Monitoringandassessingwaterresourceavailability11

1.2Optimizingirrigationefficiencywithsmartsystems13

1.3Strategiccropselectionforwaterresilience16

1.4Leveragingtechnologytomaximizerainwaterharvesting18

2Buildingthefoundationfordigitalwatersolutionsinagriculture19

2.1Establishingdatainfrastructureforsmartagriculture21

2.2Expandingconnectivityinruralareas24

2.3Upskillingfarmerstoleveragedigitaltechnologies24

2.4Makingsmartagricultureaffordableandscalable25

3Conclusion27

Contributors29

Acknowledgements29

Endnotes31

Disclaimer

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?2025WorldEconomicForum.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orbyanyinformation

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HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture2

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture3

June2025

HelenBurdett

Head,TechnologyforEarth,WorldEconomicForum

TaniaStrauss

Head,FoodandWater,WorldEconomicForum

HaticeY?ld?r?m

DigitalTransformationProgramManager,

Ko?Holding

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture

Foreword

Today,2.2billionpeoplelackaccesstosafe

drinkingwater.Upto700millionpeoplecould

beforcedtorelocateduetowatershortages

by2030.1Increasingglobaltemperatures,

unpredictableweatherpatternsandthegrowing

frequencyofdroughtsfurtherstrainfreshwater

resources,disruptingfoodsecurityandthreateninglivesandlivelihoods.

Thesepressuresreflectadeepersystemic

challenge:theglobalhydrologicalcycleitselfbeingdisrupted,amplifyingexistingvulnerabilitiesand

destabilizingecosystems.

Agricultureaccountsforover70%ofglobal

freshwaterwithdrawalsandplaysakeyrolein

addressingtheglobalwaterscarcitychallenge.2

However,manyagriculturalsystemsstillrely

onoutdatedirrigationmethodsandinefficient

waterpractices,makingthemmorevulnerable

toclimate-induceddisruptionsandreduced

agriculturalproductivity.Meetingthesechallengescallsforatransitionfromreactivewater

managementtoforward-thinking,data-driven

approachestoimproveresilienceandsustainabilityoverthelongrun.Digitalsolutionsoffera

chancetobridgethisgapbyfacilitatingreal-timemonitoring,predictiveanalyticsandprecision

irrigationmethodsthatenhancewaterefficiencyonalargescale.Withoutdigitaltransformation,agriculturerisksfallingbehindinaddressing

climate-inducedwatershortages.

Thisreport,incollaborationwithKo?Holding,

exploreshowdigitaltechnologiescanadvance

agriculturalwatermanagement.Throughpracticalusecasesandappliedstrategies,itshowcases

howartificialintelligence(AI),internetofthings(IoT),remotesensingandotheradvanced

technologiescanworktogethertomonitor

wateravailability,optimizeirrigationandguidecropselectionstrategiesinagriculture.Drawingontheinsightsofindustryleaders,academia

andmembersoftheWorldEconomicForum’s

TechforClimateAdaptation

initiative,

Water

FuturesCommunity

and

FoodInnovationHubs

,thereportisdesignedtohelpdecision-makersnavigatetheintricaciesofwatermanagementunderclimatechangepressure.Tothatend,

itpresentsactionableinsightsgroundedin

livedrealitiesratherthantheoreticalmodels,aswellastoolstoadvanceimplementationstrategiesandguideinvestment,policyandcollaborationinitiativesacrosstheagriculturallandscape.

Theintegrationofcutting-edgedigitaltechnologieswithawell-defined,strategic,multi-stakeholder

frameworkpresentsapromisingavenue

forenhancedefficiencyinagriculturalwater

managementsystems.Byadvancingrobustdatainfrastructuresystems,capacitybuildingand

coordinatedregulatoryinitiatives,itisfeasibletoaccomplishanotabledecreaseinwaterwaste

andimprovedefficiencyinagriculturalwater

management.Findingsvalidatetheimportanceofstakeholderengagementthroughcollaborationandsharedknowledgetobuildlong-term

resiliencetofuturewaterstressesandshocks.

Embracingthisholisticapproachcreatesthe

essentialconditionsforeffectivedeploymentof

digitalsolutions,ensuringthattechnology,policyandoperationalexpertisearealigned.Bythe

conclusionofthisreport,policy-makers,businessleadersandwatermanagementexpertswillbe

equippedwithactionablerecommendations

toincreasewaterefficiency,reducewasteandenhancesustainability,drivinglong-termwatersecurityforfuturegenerations.

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture4

Executivesummary

Digitaltechnologiesofferapathwayto

enhanceagriculturalwaterefficiency,unlockwaterresilienceandsupportlong-term

climateadaptationgoals.

Thedisruptionofhydrologicalcyclesasaresult

ofclimatechangecontributestomoresevere

andfrequentdroughtsincertaingeographies.3

Inefficientwaterstrategiesfurtherdrainnatural

waterresourcesandunderminefoodsecurity,

puttingimmensepressureonmajorfreshwater

consumers.Agriculturesitsattheheartofthecrisis.Althoughthesectoraccountsforthemajorityof

globalfreshwaterwithdrawals,inefficientirrigation,outdatedinfrastructureandpoorvisibilityintowateravailabilityhavehistoricallyresultedinsignificant

wasteandreducedresilience.

Digitaltechnologiespavethewayforatransformativeapproachtooptimizewateruse,minimizewaste

andbuildresilienceagainstwaterscarcityacrossagriculturalsystems.Byintegratingdigitaltoolsanddataanalyticsintoagriculturalpractices,farmers

canmakebetter-informeddecisionsinrealtime,addressingcriticalinefficienciesinagricultural

operations,forexamplethrough:

–Monitoringandassessingwateravailability:Satelliteimagery,IoTsensorsandAI-driven

analyticscanhelpmonitorsoilmoisture,

groundwaterlevelsanddroughtrisksinrealtime.Thesetechnologiesimprovethevisibilityofwaterresources,enablingfarmerstomakedata-drivendecisionsregardingirrigationanddroughtpreparedness.

–Optimizingirrigation:IoT-enabledprecisionagriculture,poweredbyAI-drivenirrigation

schedulingandremotesensingtechnologies,canminimizewaterwastethroughoptimizedirrigationpracticeswhileboostingcropyields.

–Strategiccropplanning:AI-poweredsatellite

imagingcananalyseclimate,soilandhydrologicaldatatomatchtherightcropstowateravailability.Farmerscanselecttheircropsstrategicallyby

aligningcroptypeswithwatersupplylevels.

–Rainwaterharvestingoptimization:Withgeographicinformationsystems(GIS)-driven

siteselection,smartallocationdecisionsandpredictiveanalytics,rainwatercollectioncan

beoptimizedthroughefficientcapture,storageanddistribution.Harvestedrainwatercanthenbeusedmoreeffectivelybyimplementing

advancedgeospatialanalysis,AI-drivenmonitoringanddrones.

Keybuildingblocksacceleratetheimplementationofdigitalsolutionsforlong-termresilience:

–Datainfrastructure:Buildingsystemsthatachieveseamlessdataexchangeamongplatforms,toolsandstakeholders.

–Broadbandcoverage:Guaranteeing

continuousdataaccessinremotelocationsthroughrobustdigitalinfrastructure.

–Digitalupskilling:Equippingfarmerswiththedigitaltrainingandtoolstocomprehendandactondigitalinsights.

–Affordableaccess:Overcomingfinancial

barrierswithpublic-privatepartnerships,financialincentivesandsharedinfrastructuremodels.

Waterscarcitycallsforurgentactionatalllevels.

Byimplementingdigitalwatersolutionstogether,

governments,agribusinessandtechnology

providerscanimprovewaterefficiency,drive

sustainablegrowthandsecurelong-termfood

production.Governmentscanfosterenabling

conditionsthroughopen-dataregulationsand

infrastructureinvestment,whileagribusinessand

technologyprovidersofferthetools,fieldknowledgeandinnovationrequiredtoscale-uptheimpact.

Suchpublic-privatepartnershipscanaccelerate

accesstoadvancedirrigationtechnology,increasedigitalliteracyandlowertechnologyexpendituresforfarmers.Continuedcollaborationatthislevel

willunleashsharedvalue,increaseadoptionandenhancewaterresilienceinagriculture,ensuringthatwaterandfoodecosystemsaresustainableandadaptabletoclimatechange.

Introduction

Effectivewatermanagementinagricultureisthekeyentrypointtoachievingwaterresilienceamidclimate-drivendisruptions.

Unlikesuddenclimatedisasters,droughtsunfold

graduallyandoftengounnoticeduntiltheirimpactisextensive.Theirgradualonsetmaskstheirseverity,whichmanifestsonlywhenfoodsecurity,economicstabilityandecosystemsarealreadystrained.5

Droughtsareintensifyinginlength,frequencyand

severity.Between2000and2022,droughtsgrewinnumberanddurationby29%comparedtothe

previoustwodecades.4Thisalarmingtrendislikelydrivenbyhuman-inducedclimatechange,turningwhatwasonceanaturalcomponentofEarth’s

climatecycleintoapersistentthreattoecosystems,economiesandcommunities.

By2025,1.8billionpeoplearelikelytofacewhattheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)calls“absolutewaterscarcity”andtwo-thirdsofthe

globalpopulationisexpectedtobegrapplingwithwaterstress.6

4

billion

peopleexperience

waterstressforatleastonemonthoftheyear

UnitedNations

consumptiontrendsdriveupwaterwithdrawals(seeFigure1).8Globalwaterconsumptionis

expectedtoincreaseby20-50%overcurrentfiguresby2050,withindustrialanddomesticsectorsgrowingatthehighestrate.9

Fourbillionpeopleexperiencewaterstressforatleastonemonthoftheyearandcountrieswith

thefastestpopulationgrowthareamongthemostimpacted.7TheWorldBankestimatesthatglobaldemandforfreshwaterwillrapidlysurpasssupply,asgrowingpopulations,urbanizationandshifting

Globalwaterscarcitywillintensifyby2050aspopulationgrowthacceleratesdemand

FIGURE1

Compoundfertilityandwaterstress

Low-noriskMedium-lowriskHighriskVeryhighriskN/A

Note:Thismapoverlaysprojectedpopulationgrowthwiththeavailabilityofwaterby2050.

Source:WorldBank(2023).

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture6

startswithasharedunderstandingofthekeybarrierstoeffectivewateruse(seeTable1).

Whiletheserecentshiftsinnaturalcyclesincreasewaterscarcity,inadequatewatermanagement

exacerbatestheproblem.Addressingtheissue

Over32billionm3oftreatedwaterislosteveryyearduetoleakingpipelinesandoutdateddistributionnetworks.

WorldBank

TABLE1

Keybarrierstoeffectivewateruse

ChallengeDescription

Ageinginfrastructure–Asignificantproportionofglobalwaterinfrastructurewasbuiltdecadesagoandiscurrentlyunable

tosatisfythedemandsofgrowingpopulationsandclimatevariability.

–TheWorldBankestimatesthatover32billioncubicmetres(m3)oftreatedwaterislosteveryyearduetoleakingpipelinesandoutdateddistributionnetworks.

–Conventionalforecastingmethodsfallshortinanticipatingdrasticchanges,leavingregionsill-equippedforextremeevents.

–Overextractionofgroundwaterleadstolandsubsidence,makingwatermanagementmorecomplicated.

–Globalwaterwithdrawals,drivenmainlybyoverextractionthroughagriculture,haveoutpacedpopulationgrowthovertime.

–Aquifersarebeingdepletedmorerapidlythantheycannaturallyrecharge,jeopardizinglong-termwateravailability.

–Waterpollutionworsensscarcitybydiminishingthevolumeoffreshwaterresourcesaccessibleforuse.

–Agriculturalrunoff,filledwithpesticidesandfertilizers,isaleadingcontributortowaterpollution.

–Industrialdischargescontaininguntreatedwastewaterfurtherdegradewaterquality,leadingtohotspotswithunusableresources.

–Withclimatechangealteringrainfallpatternsandintensifyingdroughtcycles,managersencountermajorchallengesinpreparingforupcomingwaterdemands.

–Theseshiftsdisruptnaturalhydrologicalcycles,impactinghowwaterisstored,flowsandreplenishes.Systemicdisruptionamplifiesuncertainty.

Overextractionand

groundwaterdepletion

Pollutionoffreshwaterresources

Uncertaintyfromclimatechange

Sources:WorldBank,FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),GlobalCommissiononEconomicsofWater(GCEW).10

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture7

Waterwithdrawalratiosbycontinent

100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%

0%

WorldEuropeAmericasOceaniaAsiaAfrica

AgricultureIndustriesMunicipalities

Source:FAO(2021).12

FIGURE2

Agriculturestandsoutastheprimarydriverofglobalwaterstressacrossmostcontinents(seeFigure2),accountingforapproximately70%ofglobalwater

withdrawalsfromrivers,lakesandaquifers.11Forthis

reason,improvingwatermanagementinagricultureisessentialtoensuringlong-runfoodsecurityandaddressingwaterscarcity.

Globalwaterwithdrawalsareprimarilydrivenbyagriculturaldemand

12%

9%

15%

13%

22%25%10%5%

19%

34%15%

57%

81%82%

69%

60%

51%

21%

Irrigationisthepredominantformofwateruse

inagricultureandamajorsourceofinefficiency,asmanyfarmersstillrelyontraditionalirrigationtechniquessuchassurfaceorsprinklerirrigation,ratherthanmoreefficientsystemssuchasdriporsubsurfaceirrigation.13Widespreadtraditionalirrigationleadstosignificantwaterwastage,

reachingupto10gallonsperminuteperacre

(93.5litresperminuteperhectare),comparedto3-7gallonsperminuteperacre(28-65litresperminuteperhectare)foralternativetechniqueslikedripirrigation.14

Inmanydevelopingregions,accesstomodern

irrigationsystemsremainslimiteddueto

underinvestmentinwaterinfrastructure.Evenin

areaswheresuchsolutionsareavailable,adoptionremainslimitedandmanyirrigationsystemsare

outdatedandpoorlymaintained,resultinginwaterlossduetoevaporation,runoffandseepage.

Inefficienciesinirrigationcandrivelong-term

degradationaswell.Forexample,overextractionofgroundwaterforirrigationduringprolongeddroughthascausedover2,200sinkholesacrossfarmlandsinTurkey’sKonyaBasin.15

Approximately60%ofthewaterusedinagricultureiswasted

becauseofinefficienciesinirrigationsystemsandinfrastructure,resultinginwaterloggingandsalinization,whichhavediminishedtheproductivityofnearly50%oftheglobe’sirrigatedareas.16

FoodandAgricultureOrganization

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture8

declineinagriculturalyieldsindrought-

affectedareas

Digitaltools

offerapathway

todriveefficiencybyenablingfaster,moreinformed

decisionsacrossagricultural

systems.

Theincreasingfrequencyofextremeweather

events,particularlyheatwavesanddroughts,

hasalsointensifiedweatherinstabilityand

unpredictability,posingsignificantchallengesforagriculturaloperations.Inrecentyears,drought-affectedareashaveexperienceda10%declineinagriculturalyieldsduringsevereweather

conditions,17whileuncertainclimatepatternshavealreadyledtosignificantdeclinesinyieldsfor

cropssuchaswheat,maize,riceandsoybeans.18Suchdisruptionsjeopardizetheconsistencyofthefoodsupplychain,resultingineconomic

instabilityforcountrieswhereagricultureisakeypartoftheeconomy.

By2035,severeheatandwaterscarcityareexpectedtoleadto

yearlyfixedassetlossesrangingfrom$42-45millionforanaverageagribusinessfirmdependingontheemissionsscenario,highlightingtheurgentnecessityforeffectivewatermanagementstrategies.19

WorldEconomicForum

Conventionalagriculturalsystemslacktheadaptabilitytorespondtothisincreasingclimatevariability.

Critically,theyoverlooktheroleofnaturalprocessessuchasinfiltrationandtranspirationtohelpretain

moistureandsupportaneffectivewatercycle.Theseecosystemfunctionsaredisruptedthroughland

degradationorpoorwatermanagement,causing

increaseinevaporationandrunoff.Incertainregions,localcommunitieshavecreatednature-based

solutions(NbS)tocontributetowaterresilience,suchasglaciergrafting,whichusesseasonal

waterstorageandregulatedmeltwaterdischargetodecreaserunoffandenhancegroundwater

recharge.20Embracingtheseapproachesoffers

essentialcontextforpinpointingwheretechnologycanbebestpositionedtocomplementthem.

Digitaltoolsofferapathwaytodriveefficiencybyenablingfaster,moreinformeddecisions

acrossagriculturalsystems.Ratherthanreplacing

conventionalpractices,thesesolutionsenhancethem,makingwaterusagemoreprecise,adaptableand

resilient.Digitalsolutionsprovidevaluableinsightsforsmarterwatermanagementinagriculture,forexample:

–IoT-drivenreal-timetrackingofsoilmoisturelevels.

–AI-enhancedpredictiveanalyticsthatoptimizeirrigationschedules.

–Satelliteimagingandremotesensingthatimproveevaluationsofwateravailabilityinfreshwaterresources.

–Automationandprecisionirrigationsystemsthatensureoptimalapplicationofwaterinagriculturalfields.

–AI-drivencropplanningmodelsthatassist

farmersinchoosingwater-efficientcropstailoredtospecificclimateandsoilconditions.

–Digitalmonitoringthatsupportsrainwater

harvestingbypinpointingthebestcollectionandstoragetechniques.

Theintegrationofthesetechnologiesempowers

agriculturaloperationstomakeinformed,data-drivendecisions,reducewaterlossandbuildresiliencein

responsetochangingwateravailability.

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture9

1

Closingthegapinagriculturalwaterefficiency

Digitaltechnologyunlockssignificant

efficiencygainsinagriculturalwaterusethroughtargeted,scalablesolutions

acrossagriculturallandscapes.

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture10

relyonsmartersolutionstoavoiddepletingwaterresources.Byleveragingdigitaltechnologiesinirrigation,theycanpreventwaterwastagewhileboostingcropproductivity.

Effectivewatermanagementinagricultureisvital

sincecropyields,foodsecurityandecosystem

longevityalldependonitsoutcome.Asfar-reachingimpactsofclimatechangeputcropproduction

attremendousrisk,farmersmustincreasingly

3

FIGURE

Keystrategiesforoptimizingwateruseinagriculture

Optimizeirrigationef?ciency

Choosecropsstrategically

Monitor&assesswaterresources

Maximizerainwaterutilization

Precisionirrigationsolutionstoreducewaterwaste

Minimizesexcessivewaterusagewhileensuring

optimalcropgrowth.

Data-driventrackingofwaterresourcesforinformed

decision-making

Providesreal-timeinsights

intowaterresourcestoguidewaterallocationand

conservationstrategies.

Aligningcropchoiceswithwateravailability

Preventsinef?cientcrop

selection,reducingoverall

waterdemandinagriculture.

Capturingand

distributingrainwateref?ciently

Ensuresstoredrainwateriseffectivelyutilizedand

distributedtosupport

irrigationandsoilmoistureretention.

Sustainable&resilientagriculture

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture11

1.1Monitoringandassessingwaterresourceavailability

Waterusageinagriculturereliesonprecise

wateravailabilitydata.Withoutthisinformation,irrigationplanningandwatermanagementeffortsfailtobeeffective,particularlyinareaswith

limitedwaterresources.

Temperaturechanges,extremeweathereventsandincreasingwatervariabilityrequirethemonitoringofwaterinrealtimetoguaranteesustainableresource

distribution.Surfacewaterbodies(e.g.rivers,lakes,reservoirs)serveasprimarywatersourcesfor

agriculture,buttheiravailabilityvarieswithseasonalchangesandclimatepatterns.Soilmoisturelevelsactasearlyindicatorsofdroughtandplantstress,directingwaterallocationdecisionspriortothe

onsetofnoticeableharm.Table2showcaseshowdigitaltechnologiescanmeasurewateravailabilitybytrackingcriticalindicators.

TABLE2Roleofdigitaltechnologiesinmeasuringwateravailability

TechnologyusedFunctionDecision-makingimpact

–Satelliteimaging

–GISmapping

–Passivemicrowavesatellites

–IoTsoilsensors

–Monitorschangesinlakes,riversandreservoirs

–Detectsmoisturevariationsintopsoil

Trackingsurfacewateravailability

Measuringsoilmoisturelevels

Analysingwatercyclepatterns

Assessingwaterextractionneeds

Keymonitoringaspect

–Supportsirrigationplanningandwaterresourceallocation

–AI-driventime-seriesanalysis–Identifiesanomaliesinseasonalwatertrends

–Enablesearlydroughtdetectionandoptimizedirrigationscheduling

–Predictswatershortagesandenhancesclimate

–Satellite-GISintegration

–Algorithm-basedassessments

–Evaluatessurfacewaterfluctuationsandsoil

moisturetrends

resilienceplanning

–Guidesreservoirmanagementandsustainablewateruse

Satelliteimageryenhancesbroaderwatermanagementinitiativesby

providinga

dependable,

real-timecaptureofwaterresources.

Satelliteimageryoffersadailyoverviewofsurface

waterbodies,detectingchangesinlakes,riversandreservoirs.Satellitedata,utilizingpassivemicrowavesensing,alsogaugessoilmoisturecontentinthe

top10cmofthesoil,forecastingwaterstressanddroughtsusceptibility.

BycombiningsatelliteimageswithGISmapping,

algorithmscanassesssurfacewaterchanges.Thisenablesoperationsmanagerstoswiftlyidentify

ifstreamsareflowingoriflakesandpondshave

receded.Theseunderstandingscanguideextractionmethodsandsupportmoreinformedallocation

decisions–particularlywhenpairedwithreal-timesoilmoisturedata–ensuringthatwaterisappliedonlywhenandwherecropsneedit.

InPunjab,India,forexample,scientistsmeasuredtherateofgroundwaterchangebyusingdata

fromNASA’stwinGRACE(GravityRecoveryandClimateExperiment)satellites.Thedatarevealedadramaticlossofgroundwaterbetween2002and

2008,whichhasprovidedsignificantinsightsintogroundwaterdepletionintheregion.21

Satelliteimageryenhancesbroaderwater

managementinitiativesbyprovidingadependable,

real-timecaptureofwaterresources–formingabasisonwhichtobuilddigitalagriculturesolutions.Publiclyaccessibledataplatforminitiatives,suchasFAO

WaPOR22andNASASERVIR,23areofvitalimportancetohighlydata-scarceregions,byprovidingnear

real-timesatellitedatathatsupportswateravailabilityassessments.Satellitedatacanassistgovernments,utilitiesandagribusinessesinmonitoringwater

resourcesandinformingdecisionson:

–Wheretofocusinvestmentsonirrigationinfrastructure.

–Whentoimplementdroughtcontingencyplans.

–Howtooptimizereservoirandgroundwaterusage.

Ourdailysatelliteobservations,combinedwithcustomalgorithms,allowustodetectchangesinsurfacewaterextents.Thisinformationiscriticalnotonlyforagriculturalplanningbutalsoforensuringthatwateris

managedefficientlyacrossentireregions.

AndrewZolli,PlanetLabs

HarnessingDigitalTechnologiesforSmarterWaterManagementinAgriculture12

CASESTUDY1

NASA’ssatellitemonitoringforsustainablegroundwatermanagementinCalifornia’sTulareBasin

Challenge

TheTulareBasininCalifornia,avitalagriculturalregion

withintheCentralValley,hasbeenexperiencingsignificantgroundwaterdepletionduetoyearsofintensiveirrigationpractices.Duringdroughtperiods,morethan80%of

irrigationwaterissourcedfromunderground,exertingconsiderablepressureonwatersupplies.Farmers

haveresortedtodrillingwellsasdeepas3,500feet

(1,000+metres)toaccesswater;however,thelack

ofclearinformationregardinggroundwateravailability

hascomplicatedeffectivemanagement.Conventional

watermonitoringtechniqueswereunabletodifferentiatebetweenwaterextractedfromaquifers(whichmaynotreplenish)andwaterfromthewa