TheSelfThinkingAbouttheSelf:PersonalversusSocialIdentitySelf-Esteem:AttitudesTowardtheSelfSocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfTheSelfasTargetofPrejudiceCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfPersonal-SocialIdentityContinuum—signifiesthetwodistinctwaysthattheselfcanbecategorizedPersonallevelSelfcanbethoughtofasauniqueindividualHowit’sdescribeddependsonintragroupcomparisons.SocialidentitylevelSelfcanbethoughtofasamemberofagroupHowit’sdescribedisaresultofintergroupcomparisons.Situationalfactorsimpacthowpeopledefinethemselves.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhoIAmDependsontheSituationPeopleseethemselvesdifferentlydependingonwhichrelationshipsandwhichcontextsareconsidered.Self-Complexity—referstohowtheself-conceptisorganizedHighcomplexity:AspectsoftheselfaredistinctfromoneanotherFailureinonedomainhaslessimpactonone’soverallfeelingsaboutone’sselfLowcomplexity:AspectsoftheselfoverlapeachotherCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfCultureaffectshowtheselfisperceived.IndependentSelf-Concept—inindividualisticcultures,peopledevelopaself-conceptasseparatefromorindependentofothers.InterdependentSelf-Concept—incollectivistcultures,peopledevelopaself-conceptintermsofone’sconnectionsorrelationshipswithothers.Groupmembership,likebeingamemberofagendergroup,influenceshowoneseesone’sself.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhoIAmDependsonOthers’Treatment

Howpeoplearetreatedbyothersandhowtheybelievetheywillbetreatedinthefutureaffectshowtheythinkaboutthemselves.Peoplemaytrytohideanaspectoftheselfthattheythinkwillresultinrejectionfromothers.Or,theymaychoosetoemphasizethisfeature.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfSelf-Awareness:TerrorManagementSubjectiveSelf-Awareness—thoughttobethefirstleveloftheselftoemergeandistherecognitionthattheselfisseparatefromotherobjectsinone’sphysicalenvironmentObjectiveSelf-Awareness—organism’scapacitytobetheobjectofitsownattentionCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfSymbolicSelf-Awareness—uniquelyhumancapacitytoformanabstractrepresentationoftheselfthroughlanguageandisconnectedwithknowingthatdeathisinevitableTerrorManagementTheory—humansconfrontexistentialterrorduetotheirawarenessoftheinevitabilityoftheirowndeathPeopleattempttodealwiththisthreattotheselfwhentheirownmortalityissalientSelf-esteemcanactasabufferagainsttheanxietythatisaresultoftheawarenessoftheirowninevitabledeath.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfPossibleSelves:TheSelfOverTimePossibleSelf—imageofhowtheselfmightbeinthefutureCouldbeavoidedordesiredCanmotivatepeopletochangebehaviorAwarenessthatoneisfailingtoliveuptoone’sstandardscanresultindistractionasawaytoreduceuncomfortableself-awarenessPeoplemaybeoverlyoptimisticabouttheirabilitytobecometheselfthattheydesire.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfSuccessfulchangeismorelikelywhenfeelingsofself-efficacy,believingthatonecanachieveagoal,

arepresent.Otherchangestotheselfoccurduetochangesinsituationalfactors.Forexample,age,relocation,newjob,andmajorlifeeventsCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhatareyourthoughts?Whatarefactorsthatinfluencehowpeoplethinkaboutthemselves?Whatarethebenefitsofincreasedself-awareness?Whatarethecostsofbecomingmoreself-aware?Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemMeasurementofSelf-EsteemSelf-Esteem—degreetowhichtheselfisperceivedpositivelyornegatively;one’soverallattitudetowardtheselfSelf-esteemcanchangereadilyinresponsetosocialsituations.Iteasilycanbeenhancedordecreasedinlaboratorysettings.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemRosenberg’s(1965)scaleisthemostcommonmethodtomeasureself-esteem.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemUnconsciousmeasurementproceduresalsoareusedtomeasureself-esteem.Self-ReferenceEffect—peopleseemtoorientthemselvestowardstimulithatareassociatedwiththeselfandshowpreferencesforobjectsownedbyandreflectiveoftheselfSuggeststhatstrategiestoimproveself-esteemmaybemoresuccessfulifimplementedbelowconsciousawarenessCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemSelf-ServingBiasesAboveAverageEffect—tendencyforpeopletoratethemselvesasabovetheaverageonmostpositivesocialattributesPeopledonottendtotakeresponsibilityfornegativeoutcomes,butdosoforpositiveoutcomes.Peoplemaydothisforbothpersonalandgroupoutcomes.CultureaffectslikelihoodthatpeoplewillengageinthisprocessHowever,whenpeopleattributenegativeoutcomestointernalfactorstheyreceivemorepositiveevaluationsfromothersthandopeoplewhoblameexternalcircumstances.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemDoGenderDifferencesinSelf-EsteemExist?Womenwhoaredevalued(facegenderdiscrimination)andareawareofthisinequalityhavelowerself-esteemcomparedtoothers.Men’sself-esteemtendstobehigherthanwomen’sself-esteem.Thesedifferencesarelessintheprofessionalclassthaninmiddle-lowerincomeclasses.StrongestgenderdifferencehasbeenobservedamongwhiteNorthAmericansNoreliabledifferencewasfoundamongminorityAmericansCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**Self-EsteemWhatareyourthoughts?Whataresuccessfulstrategiesthatpeopleusetomaintaintheiroverallself-esteem?Whyaremembersofhighstatusgroupsmorelikelytocomplainaboutunfairoutcomes?Whyishighself-esteemassociatedwithviolenceinmen?Whatarereasonswhygenderdifferencesinself-esteemarehigherinwhiteNorthAmericanscomparedtominorityAmericans?Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfMethodofcomparisondependsonpeople’smotivesforcomparison:tofeelgoodortobeaccurateTobeaccurate,itmaybebesttocompareone’sperformancewithsomeonewhoissimilaronvariousdimensions(e.g.,gender,ethnicity,orproficiencyinaspecificdomain).Also,comparisontosimilarothers(thoseinone’sin-group)mayresultinamorepositiveresultCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfContextswithinwhichcomparisonsoccurhavedifferentconsequencesSelf-EvaluationMaintenanceModel—suggeststhattomaintainapositiveviewofthepersonalselfpeopledistancethemselvesfromotherswhoperformbetterthantheydoonvalueddimensions,butmoveclosertootherswhoperformworsethantheydoSocialIdentityTheory—suggeststhattomaintainapositiveviewoftheirgroupidentitypeoplewillmoveclosertopositiveotherswithwhomtheyshareanidentity,butdistancefrom(orderogate)thosewhoperformpoorlyorsomehowmakesocialidentitynegative(black-sheepeffect)Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSelf-PresentationandSelf-RegulationIngratiation—whenpeopletrytomakeotherslikethembyconveyingthattheylikethemAnd,peoplecanattempttopresentthemselvestoothersaspossessingpositiveattributesThistendencyisaffectedbyculturalnorms.AmericanstudentsaremorelikelytodescribethemselvesintermsoftheirstrengthsthanareJapanesestudentswhotendtobemoreself-critical.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSelf-Monitoring—referstohowmotivatedandablepeoplearetomonitortheirbehaviorinresponsetoothers’expectanciesHighself-monitorsareconcernedwiththereactionsofothersandareverygoodatmonitoringtheirbehaviorandadjustingtheiractionsinfrontofotherpeople.UsethirdpersonpronounsthatshowoutwardfocusonothersTendtohavehigherself-esteemduetosocialapprovalLowself-monitorsarenotasadeptatthisandprefertoactconsistentlywiththeirpersonalviews.UsefirstpersonpronounsthatshowafocusontheselfLoseself-esteemwhentheyviolateownpersonalstandardsCopyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfAnothermethodtoknowtheself,whichisassumedtobeuseful,isintrospection—theprocessofprivatelythinkingabout“whooneis.”However,lookinginwardmaynotbethebestwaytogainself-knowledge.

Peopleoftendonothaveconsciousawarenessofthereasonsfortheiractions.Analyzingreasonsforlikingorchoosingsomethingcanresultinattitudechangethatmisleadspeoplewhenmakinganotherchoice.Peoplearenotverygoodatpredictingtheirfuturefeelings.Theusefulnessofintrospectiondependsonwhichaspectsoftheselfareanalyzed.Copyright2006,AllynandBacon**SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfWhatareyourthoughts?Whydopeoplemakedownwardsocialcomparisons?Ifsomeoneclosetoyouperformsbetterthanyoudoonataskthatisimportanttoyou,whatmayhappenaccordingtotheself-evaluationmaintenancemodel?Whoislikelytostayinrelationshipslonger,alowself-monitororahighself-monitor?Why?Copyright2006,Allyn