1、International Trade (2),Weve learned that international trade took place for two main reasons: The distribution of natural resources is uneven; International specialization. Where there are no differences among countries in basic capabilities at producing goods, other bases for trade among them may

2、still exist. 即使各國在生產商品的基礎能力方面沒有差異，它們之間進行貿易的基礎仍然可能存在。,Other reasons for international trade: A. Patterns of demand may differ among nations. 各國需求結構會有所不同。 例如，一個國家大多數消費者會認為狗肉是一種美味，而在另一個國家，吃狗肉是可憎的。在這種情況下，第二個國家可能將本國的狗肉賣給第一個國家。 So, trade will be bases not on differences in the production capabilities of t

3、he two countries but on different consumption preferences. 所以，貿易不是建立在兩個國家的生產能力差異上，而是建立在不同的消費愛好上。 B. Trade may occur out of economy of scale _ the cost advantage of large scale production. 貿易可能產生于規(guī)模經濟_ 即大規(guī)模生產的成本優(yōu)勢。 C. Trade takes place because of innovation or style. Even though a country produces en

4、ough commodities at reasonable cost to meet its own demand and even to export some, it may still import commodities from other countries for innovation or variety of style. 貿易的發(fā)生是由于革新或款式的需要。即使一國能用合理的成本生產足夠的商品滿足自己的需求，甚至還出口一些。但是，由于革新或各種不同款式的需要，它們仍然可能從其他國家進口該商品。,To summarize, the theory of internationa

5、l specialization seeks to answer the question which countries will produce what goods, with what trade patterns among them. Differences in production conditions, the element highlighted by the theory of comparative advantage, provide the most important part of the answer. But complete answer must al

6、so take into account other factors such as patterns of demand, economies of scale and innovations or style. 總的來說，國際分工理論尋求回答的是哪些國家將生產什么產品，以及采用什么樣的貿易結構。生產條件的差異，這一被比較優(yōu)勢理論所強調的要素為這一問題作出了最重要的回答。但是，完整的答案也必須同時考慮到其他因素，如需求結構，規(guī)模經濟，革新或款式。,In reality, however, complete specialization may never occur even when it

7、 is economically advantageous. 實際上，即使從經濟上看是完全有利的，完全的專門化也永遠不會發(fā)生。 For strategic or domestic reasons. A country may continue to produce goods for which it does not have an advantage. The benefits of specialization may also be affected by transported cost. Goods and raw materials have to be transported

8、around the world and the cost of the transport reduces the benefit of trade. The case will be more serious with transporting bulky or perishable goods. Trade barriers for protection of the country. Protectionist measures which are often taken by government are also barriers to trade. The typical exa

9、mples are tariff barriers and non-tariff barriers. 出于戰(zhàn)略或國內的原因，一個國家可能繼續(xù)生產不具優(yōu)勢的產品。 專門化的好處也可能受到運輸成本的影響，貨物和原材料不得不在全世界運來運去，而運輸成本減少了貿易利益。如果是運輸大宗貨物或易腐敗變質的貨物，情況就更嚴重了。 保護國家的貿易壁壘。各國政府經常采取的貿易保護主義措施也是貿易障礙。典型的例子是關稅壁壘和非關稅壁壘。,Multinational Enterprise/multinational Company,What is MNE/MNC ? MNE is a business organi

10、zation that owns, controls and manages assets in more than one country. MNE has the following distinctive characteristics: A. MNEs are generally enormous in size. They control enormous amount of resources in the world. 跨國企業(yè)組織都十分龐大，他們控制著世界上大量的資源。 B. MNEs are wide geographical spread. It enables them:

11、 a. to have a wide range of options in terms of decisions in souring and pricing. b. to take advantage of charges in the international economic environment. c. to engage in worldwide integrate production and marketing. 廣闊的地域分布也是跨國企業(yè)的一個特點。這使得它們在資源和定價決策上有了很大的選擇范圍；也使它在能更方便利用世界經濟的變化；更使得它能在全球范圍內實現生產和銷售的一

12、體化。 C. MNEs have longevity and rapid growth. They have a history of many years and double digit growth of rate of revenue. 跨國企業(yè)另一個普遍特點是歷時長久和發(fā)展迅速。,Four different types of MNC 1. Multi-domestic corporation: 此類跨國公司由相對獨立的分公司組成。母公司授予各分公司充分的權力，使其按照東道國當地顧客的需要進行生產和營銷。當各東道國的具體情況明顯不同時這種方式比較適用。 2. Global corpo

13、ration: 其經營原則與第一類相反，它們把世界市場視為一個統(tǒng)一整體，權力和責任都集中于總公司，由總公司負責管理全球的生產和營銷，以盡量多的實現規(guī)模經濟效益。 3. Transnational corporation: 此類跨國公司旨在將上述兩種經營方式結合起來，即實現高效率又保持靈活性。它們的經營活動和資源既不是高度集中又不是分權，而是有各子公司形成一個相互依賴的公司網絡。 4. World company: 因其國籍在很大程度上淡化了，目前達到這么高的國際化程度的公司極少。如，World Bank Group, IFC-International Finance Corporation,

14、 IMF-International Monetary Fund,Procedures of Export 出口流程 The most difficult part of exporting is taking the first step. Different countries have different economic policies or system. So before doing business with foreign countries, one has to understand the whole procedures of exporting. 對出口貿易來說，

15、最困難的是邁出第一步。不同的國家有不同的經濟政策或不同的經濟體系。因此，任何想要做外貿的人都必須事先了解外貿出口的流程。,Exporting is an orderly, methodical and a somewhat technical process of adapting Chinese products and exporting methods to conditions outside China. Export marketing has much in common with internal selling. But business environment varies

16、 greatly because of different in language, customs and tradition. To some extent, this gap can be filled by export market research before real exporting is undertaken. In moving to the foreign market, the exporter who squarely confronts the problem of seeking a target, or locating the promising cust

17、omer for his products finds himself facing many distinct but related problems, which involve using a variety of techniques and a whole set of procedures in a suitable and systematic way, making a serious of right decisions about many different options that one has, and always bearing in mind the req

18、uirements and characteristics of the market itself. Above all, it all adds up to “marketing mix”.,出口是把中國的產品和出口方法適合其他國家的條件的一種有秩序，有方法并有一定技術性的過程。 出口推銷和國內銷售在很多地方有共同之處。但商業(yè)環(huán)境卻因各國語言，習俗以及傳統(tǒng)的差異而有極大不同。在轉向國外市場的過程中，正在尋找目標市場及有希望的顧客這種問題的出口商發(fā)現他們面臨許多截然不同又密切相關的問題，其中包括采用各種技巧及一整套適合而有系統(tǒng)的措施，在多種不同的選擇中制定一系列決策，同時還要牢記市場本身的要

19、求及特點。最重要的是這一切構成了“市場營銷組合”。,The procedures of an export or import business is so complicated that it may take quite a long time to conclude a transaction. Varied and complicated procedures have to be gone through in the course of export or import transaction. From the very beginning to the end of the transaction, the whole operation generally undergoes three stages: preparation for exporting or importing, business negotiation and contract performance. Each stage