1、,2.2 Criteria of Translation The so-call principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translati

2、on works.,An Overview of Translation Theory in ChinaZhi Qian (支謙,Eastern Han): “佛言，依其義不用飾，取其法不以嚴(yán)。其傳經(jīng)者，當(dāng)令易曉，勿失厥義，是則為善?！?Dao An (道安, Eastern Jin ,314385): warned translators on guard against 五失本 (five ways of losing the original essence in translation),The five losses are: (1) unnecessary reversion of

3、 word order (2) added description (which does not exist in the original), (3) cutting of repeated wording (necessary as religious scriptures for prayers),(4) omission of repetition of certain conclusive messages, (5) cutting of contents repeated as introduction to a new topic.,Xuan Zang (玄奘, Tang Dy

4、nasty 600-664) （1）“既須求真，又須喻俗” （To be both true and coherent , or: must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace） （2）“五不翻”理論,馬建忠（18451900）： in response to the contemporary abuse in translation, brought forth the principle of “善譯”： He wrote the first Chinese grammar book “馬氏文通” 所有相當(dāng)之實義，委屈推究，務(wù)

5、審其音聲之高下，析其字句之繁簡，盡其文體之變態(tài)，及其義理精深奧折之所由然。夫如是，則一書到手，經(jīng)營反復(fù)，確知其意旨之所在，而又摹寫其神情，仿佛其語氣，然后心悟神解，振筆而書，譯成之文，適如其所譯而止，而曾無毫發(fā)出入于其間，夫而后，能使閱者所得之益，與觀原文無異，是則為善譯也矣。,一書到手經(jīng)營反復(fù)，comprehension知其意旨，摹寫神情、語氣，心悟神解，spirit振筆而書，譯成之文，適如其所譯而止，無毫發(fā)出入其間，accuracy夫而后能使讀者所得之益，與觀原文無異，則為善譯。equivalent response,Ma Jianzhong explained his standard

6、of a “good translation”: “When the translator has a book to translate, he needs to read it over and over again until he is sure of what it is intended to mean, trying to capture its spirit and imitate its tone. Then he puts it in another language as he understands it.,Thus, the translated text is si

7、milar to the original without any difference between them. The reader of the translation benefits from it almost the same as the reader does from the original. A translation up to that is a good translation.”,嚴(yán)復(fù)（8541921): Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China,

8、Yan Fus “three-character guide”, which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely the principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Yan Fu has exerted such a strong and profound influence upon generations of Chinese translators and translation theorists thereafter that a

9、nyone talking about Chinese translation studies cannot but mention his criteria.,嚴(yán)復(fù)：信（達(dá)旨，將原文說明）、達(dá)（前后引襯，以顯其意，不斤斤于字比句次）、雅（爾雅，用漢以前的字法、句法） 信：be faithful；達(dá)：be expressive; natural; smooth; fluent；雅：elegant; beautiful.,譯事三難：信，達(dá)，雅。求其信，已大難矣。顧信矣不達(dá)，雖譯尤不譯也。則達(dá)尚焉 Translation has to do with three difficult things:

10、 to be faithful, expressiveness, and elegance. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.,易曰修辭立誠。子曰辭達(dá)而已。又曰言之無文，行之不遠(yuǎn)。三者乃文章正軌，亦即為譯事楷模。故信達(dá)而外，求其爾雅。（嚴(yán)復(fù)：天演論序言） Th

11、e Book of Changes says that first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness; Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if ones language lacks grace, it wont go far. These three qualities then are the criterion of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too

12、. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness I also aim at elegance.,Faithfulness(信): means that the translated text should be faithful to the original text. 準(zhǔn)確地傳達(dá)原文的內(nèi)容。,e.g. (1) My work, my family, my friends were more than enough to fill my time. 原譯：我干工作，我做家務(wù)，我有朋友往來，這些占用了我的全部時間。,e.g. (1) My wor

13、k, my family, my friends were more than enough to fill my time. 改譯：我要工作，要做家務(wù)，要與朋友往來，這些事用全部時間應(yīng)付還不夠。,（2）He took all his pain and what was left of his strength and his long gone pride and he put it against the fishs agony and the fish came over on to his side and swam gently on his side 原譯：他要喚起久已喪失的自傲，

14、忍住所有的痛楚，去克服那魚臨死的掙扎。魚身傾斜了，它側(cè)著身體緩緩地游著,（2）He took all his pain and what was left of his strength and his long gone pride and he put it against the fishs agony and the fish came over on to his side and swam gently on his side 改譯：他忍著一身痛，使出還剩下的一點力氣，鼓起早已喪失的自信，與臨死掙扎的魚拼搏著。終于，魚翻過了身子，側(cè)起來慢慢游著,Expressiveness（達(dá)）:

15、 means that the translated text should be expressive and coherent without anything awkward. The translated text should be in accordance with the language rules of the target language. It demands that the version must be clear and flowing without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense.

16、譯文語言應(yīng)該通俗明白，通順易懂，沒有文理不通，結(jié)構(gòu)混亂，邏輯不清的現(xiàn)象。,e.g.(1) Mr. Beg quickly returned to his office and filed an urgent story to his newspaper in London, little realizing that he was about to become part of a new journalistic legend on Fleet Street. 原譯：貝格連滿趕回辦公室，向倫敦報社發(fā)表了一條急電，沒有想到他自己就要成為倫敦新聞界最新的新聞傳說的一部分。,e.g.(1) Mr.

17、 Beg quickly returned to his office and filed an urgent story to his newspaper in London, little realizing that he was about to become part of a new journalistic legend on Fleet Street. 改譯：貝格連滿趕回辦公室，向倫敦報社發(fā)表了一條急電，沒有想到這件事后來在艦隊街傳為新聞界的美談。,（2）This nations best-loved author was every bit as adventurous, p

18、atriotic, romantic and humorous as anyone has ever imagined. 原譯：這位全國最受熱愛的作家完全像任何人以往想象的那樣冒險、愛國、浪漫和幽默。,（2）This nations best-loved author was every bit as adventurous, patriotic, romantic and humorous as anyone has ever imagined. 改譯：這位全國最受歡迎的作家的探索精神、愛國思想、浪漫風(fēng)格和幽默風(fēng)趣，絲毫不亞于人們所能想象的程度。,Elegance: Requires a t

19、ranslation to be esthetically pleasing. It demands that the translated text should be exquisite and that its style ought to be very graceful. (Many scholars in China approve of his faithfulness and expressiveness, but argue against his elegance.),(1) Its up to my neck to your bullshit. (原文是 美國大兵的粗話)

20、 原譯：你把我害得好苦?。?(1) Its up to my neck to your bullshit. (原文是 美國大兵的粗話) 原譯：你把我害得好苦?。?改譯：你讓我倒了八輩子邪霉了。,(2) It is the opinion of my grandmother, God bless her, that all men should labor., and at the table, a moment ago, she said to me: You must learn to do some good work, the making of some items useful to

21、 man, something out of clay, or out of wood, or metal, or cloth. 原譯：我親愛的祖母，愿上帝保佑她，認(rèn)為凡人都應(yīng)該努力工作。適才進(jìn)餐時她對我言道：你務(wù)必拜師學(xué)藝，制造一些于人類有益之物，使用泥土、木材、金屬、布料來制造物品。,(2) It is the opinion of my grandmother, God bless her, that all men should labor., and at the table, a moment ago, she said to me: You must learn to do so

22、me good work, the making of some items useful to man, something out of clay, or out of wood, or metal, or cloth. 改譯：我的祖母，愿上帝保佑她，認(rèn)為人人都應(yīng)該干活。剛才在飯桌上她對我說：你一定要學(xué)會一樣好手藝，做些對人有好處的東西，用泥土做些什么，或者用木材，或者用金屬，或者用布料做些什么。,（3）This flat flourishing, easy country never could have looked more rich and prosperous, than in

23、that opening summer of 1815, when its green fields and quiet cities were enlivened by multiplied red-coats. 原譯：這個平坦的旺盛的生活不困難的國家看起來從來沒有比1815年的夏季的開端更富裕和興旺。當(dāng)時它的綠色的田地和安靜的城市都被人數(shù)眾多的傳紅衣服的人弄得活躍起來。,（3）This flat flourishing, easy country never could have looked more rich and prosperous, than in that opening s

24、ummer of 1815, when its green fields and quiet cities were enlivened by multiplied red-coats. 改譯：1815年初夏，這平坦、舒適的國家真是空前的繁榮富庶。蒼翠的平原和安靜的城市里全是穿紅衣的軍人，頓時顯得熱鬧起來。,Lu Xun (魯迅)：信，順 （faithfulness, smoothness） 凡是翻譯，必須兼顧兩面，一當(dāng)然力求易解，一則保存原作的風(fēng)姿。(keep the full flavor of the original work) Whiling sticking to his prin

25、ciple “rather to be faithful in thought than smooth in the language”, Lu Xun advocated that “a translation must have both intelligibility and the style of the original text. ”,Modern scholars in China also raised different criteria: 鄭振鐸: 譯書自以能存真為第一要義最好一面極力求不失原意，一面要譯文流暢。,林語堂: 忠實標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、通順標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、美的標(biāo)準(zhǔn) (faithful

26、ness, fluency, and beautifulness or aesthetic quality) 翻譯是一種藝術(shù)。翻譯的藝術(shù)所依賴的：第一是譯者對于原文文字上及內(nèi)容上的透徹的了解，第二是譯者有相當(dāng)?shù)膰某潭龋軐懬逦鷷尺_(dá)的中文，第三是譯事上的訓(xùn)練，譯者對于翻譯標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的問題有相當(dāng)?shù)囊娊狻?譯者不但要求達(dá)意，并且要以傳神為目的，譯文必須忠實于原文之字神句氣與言外之意。,Though in Lins opinion, his criterion of “aesthetic quality” covers more than Yans “elegance”, its self-evident

27、 that both sets of criteria emphasize a translators three-level responsibility: (1) a matter of responsibility for the original author; (2) a matter of responsibility for Chinese readers; (3) a matter of responsibility for the translated text.,Fulei (付雷): 重神似而不重形式（the transfer of the original spirit

28、: spiritual resemblance spiritual similarity or achieve the spirit of the original,) 以效果而論，翻譯應(yīng)像臨畫一樣，所求的不在形似，而是神似。 He said: “As to the effect, translation ought to be like imitating a picture ;the ultimate aim lies in the resemblance in spirit rather than that in appearance.”,Then how to put it into

29、effect? Fu adds: “To strive for resemblance in spirit, not in appearance, the translator must write pure Chinese, not something stiff and awkward, but a language which can be read harmoniously in a rhythm and tempo akin to the original.”,任何作品，不精讀四、五遍決不動筆，是為譯事基本法們。第一要將原作（連同思想、感情、氣氛、情調(diào)等等）化為我有，方能談到迻譯。,

30、Qian Zhongshu (錢鐘書)：sublimation (化境) 文學(xué)翻譯的最高理想可以說是“化”。把作品從一國文字轉(zhuǎn)變成另一國文字，既不能因語文習(xí)慣的差異而露出生硬牽強的痕跡，又能完全保存原作的風(fēng)味，那就算得入于“化境”。 “The highest standard of literary translation is “transmigration”. On the one hand, there should be no trace of unnaturalness and stiffness of language resulting from the differences

31、between the two languages and, on the other, the flavor of the original is retained”.,Qian borrowed the Buddhist term “transmigration” to illustrate his view towards literary translation, during the course of which the soul of the spirit of the original remains in the target test even though its car

32、rier, the language, has been changed. This requirement, in fact, is so high that Qian once had to admit that perfect transmigration of the original text into the target one was just an ideal to strive for.,Xu Yuanchong (許淵沖)：意美，音美，形美 等化，淺化，深化 知之，好之，樂之 （1）詩詞翻譯的“三美”論（意美，音美，形美） （2）文學(xué)翻譯的“三似新論”（形似、意似、神 似

33、） （3）詩詞翻譯的“三化論（等化，淺化，深化） （4）詩詞翻譯的“三之”論（知之，好之，樂之）,許淵沖的“譯經(jīng)”：“譯可譯，非常譯；忘其形，得其意。得意，理解之初；忘形，表達(dá)之母。故應(yīng)得意，以求其同；故可忘形，以存其異。兩者同出，異名同謂：得意忘形，求同存異，翻譯之門?！?Liu Zhongde （劉重德）：“信、達(dá)、切” 信：expressiveness-a translation should be faithful to the content of the original信于內(nèi)容, 達(dá)：expressiveness-a translation should be as expres

34、sive as the original達(dá)如其意,具備原文一樣的表現(xiàn)力, 切：closeness-a translation should be as close to the original style as possible.切合風(fēng)格,盡可能切近原文風(fēng)格 and 信, 達(dá), 貼 (貼切, 譯什么像什么）,Some of the criteria proposed by Western scholars: Etienne Dolet 多雷(1509-1546): (1).The translators should understand perfectly the sense and in

35、tension of the author he is translating.,(2).The translator should have not only perfect knowledge of the language of the author he is translating but also the same excellence in the language into which he is going to translate; i.e., the translator should know the SL and TL to perfection.,(3).The t

36、ranslator should avoid rendering word for word. (4).The translator should employ words that are in common use.,(5).The translator should link and order words with sweetness so as to produce the style.,Alexander Fraser Tytler: （泰特勒） Essay on the Principles of Translation(1792) A good translation: Tha

37、t in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.,Three laws of translation: （1

38、）A translator should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. 譯文應(yīng)該完全傳達(dá)原文的思想。,（2）The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original. 譯文的風(fēng)格和筆調(diào)應(yīng)與原文的一 致。,（3）A translation should have all the ease of the original composition. 譯文應(yīng)像原文一樣流暢。,Federov（費

39、道羅夫）: Translation should give a version which may be read with as much pleasure as the original, and yet remain faithful to its spirit, sense and style.,George Campbell (坎貝爾): A good translator is: 1) To give a just representation of the sense of the original,2) To convey into his version, as much a

40、s possible, in a consistency with the genius of the language with which he writes, the authors spirit and manners,3) To take care that the version has at least the quality of an original performance so as to appear natural and easy.,Mildred L. Larson: (米爾德里德L. 拉森) the best translation is one which 1

41、) uses the normal language forms of the receptor language,2) communicates, as much as possible, to the receptor language speakers the same meaning that was understood by the speakers of the source language,3) maintains the dynamics of the original source language text. Maintaining the “dynamics” of

42、the source text means that the translation is presented in such a way that it will, hopefully, evoke the same response as the source text attempted to evoke.,Eugene A. Nida(尤金.奈達(dá)): dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence (動態(tài)對等，功能對等),In “Towards a Science of Translating” , Nida put forward the

43、term “dynamic equivalence” (Nida, 1964, 159) “A translation which attempts to produce a dynamic rather than a formal equivalence is based upon the principle of equivalent effect. In such a translation one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language messag

44、e, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substanially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message.”,“A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the re

45、ceptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture; it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message.”,Nida said, “The older focus in translating was the form of the message, and translators tool pa

46、rticular delight in being able to reproduce stylistic specialties, e.g. rhythms, rhymes, plays on words, chiasmus, parallelism, and unusual grammatical structures.,The new focus, however, has shifted from the form of the message to the response of the receptor . Therefore, what one must determine is

47、 the response of the receptor to the translated message. This response must then be compared with the way in which the original receptors presumably reacted to the message when it was given in its original setting. （Nida, “The Theory and Practice of Translation”P1),To avoid certain misunderstandings

48、, Nida later used the expression “functional equivalence” in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation further: (Nida, Language, Culture and Translating,1993, 116),“Translating means communicating, and this process depends on what is received by persons hearing or reading a translation. Ju

49、dging the validity of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices.,What is important is the extent to which receptors correctly understand and appreciate the translated text. Accordingly, it is essential that functional e

50、quivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of the translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. ”,“dynamic or functional equivalence ” is defined “in terms of t

51、he degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.”,His functional equivalence is defined as a translation principle, according to which the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the

52、original in such a way that the target language text wording will produce the same impact on the target text audience as the original wording does upon the source text audience.,奈達(dá)的“動態(tài)對等”論可以用一句話來表達(dá)：譯文讀者讀譯文所得到的反應(yīng)、影響和感受與原文讀者讀原文之所得大致相同。換言之，譯文對譯文接受者所起的作用，應(yīng)與原文對原文接受者所起的作用大體相同。,To sum up, two relations are

53、 in fact involved in the equivalence: on one hand, the SL text versus the original receptor; on the other hand, the translated work versus the TL receptor. With receptors being different, the effects produced are to be basically the same.,In modern translation circle, the principle of “faithfulness（

54、忠實） and smoothness”（通順） is well acknowledged as translation rules for translators to abide by.,（1） “Faithfulness”: requires that a translation should be faithful to the content and style of the original. Faithfulness is the first important principle of translation. Translation is not creation. The t

55、ranslator ought to convey the authors ideas faithfully and exactly. He has no right to alter the meaning of the original to suit his own taste.,E.g.(1)Jane does not work hard because she wants to earn money. 誤譯：因為簡想賺錢，所以才不下力。 推薦譯文：簡不是因為想賺錢才下力干的。,E.g.(2)The president stand there, hat in hand, begging

56、 congress for their votes. 誤譯：總統(tǒng)站在那里手里拿著禮帽，乞求國會投他的票。 推薦譯文：總統(tǒng)立在那里，畢恭畢敬地請求國會議員投贊成票。,Smoothness: requires that a translation should be as expressive and natural as the original. Having achieved his faithfulness to the content of the original, the translator must aim at making his translation as express

57、ive and natural as the original. We should not sacrifice some of the content to make our translation smooth, nor should we stick to the principle of “faithfulness” , therefore making our translation unreadable somewhere. We must learn to unify the two principles in our translation practice.,1Pindus

58、Road was a long, wide, straight street that ran parallel with Bread Road. 原譯：平得斯路是一條與布萊德路平行的、長長的、寬寬的、筆直的大街。 推薦譯文：平得斯路與布萊德路平行，是一條又長又寬又直的大街。,E.g.(2)She not only laughs a lot but has a heart of gold. 原譯：她不僅僅常常大笑，而且還有一顆黃金之心。 推薦譯文：她不僅笑口常開，而且還有一顆金子般的心。,e.g. (3) They want to testify that they can reconcile

59、 evolution, with its ancestors in the jungle, with man made by God in His image and put here for His purpose as part of a divine plan. 原譯：他們想證明他們能調(diào)和其祖先在叢林的進(jìn)化論與上帝以主的形象制造的并按主的意志作為神的計劃的一部分放在這里的人。,e.g. (3) They want to testify that they can reconcile evolution, with its ancestors in the jungle, with man made by God in His image and put here for His purpose as part of a divine plan. 改譯：他們想證明，主張人類祖先來自叢林的進(jìn)化論和上帝以主的形象造人，并按天意把他們有計劃地安排在這個世界上的看法，是并行不悖的。,e.g.(4) It was an old woman, tall and s