Chapter6Pragmatics語用學Definition：Pragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.Itisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.語言學研究語言使用者是如何運用語句進行成功交際的。Pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Pragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics.語用學也可看做是一種意義研究。語用學是語言學領(lǐng)域中一個比較新興的研究分支。Contextualview語境論Contextualviewplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.Pragmaticsvs.semantics語用學語義學Graduallylinguistsfoundthatitwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextwasleftunconsidered.Oncethenotionofcontextwastakenintoconsideration,semanticsspilledoverintopragmatics.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics；ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.語義學和語用學的根本區(qū)別在于意義研究是否考慮語境。不考慮語境，語義研究屬于傳統(tǒng)的語義學范圍；考慮語境，意義研究就成了語用學研究的范圍。ContextContextisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.語境是語用研究的關(guān)鍵概念，一般指交際雙方的共有知識。分為兩類：一類是交際者對所用語言本身的知識，另一類是對客觀世界的知識，包括對客觀世界的一般只是和對交際情景的具體知識。Sentencemeaning&utterancemeaningAsentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.句子意義和話語意義句子是一個語法概念，從述謂結(jié)構(gòu)上來說，句子意義經(jīng)常被看做是句子本身所具有地抽象的內(nèi)在特征。但是如果把句子看成人們在交際過程中實際所說的話，它就成了話語，話語應(yīng)該在其實際應(yīng)用的情景中予以考慮。EX：Thedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.把它看成語法單位時，它就是句子；把它看做說話人在特定情景中所說的帶有特定目的的話，它就是話語。Whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualizd,anutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning；itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication.句子意義是抽象的，不依賴語境；而話語意義是具體的，依賴語境。話語意義基于句子意義，是句子意義在特定交際情景或者語境中的具體體現(xiàn)。EX：Mybagisheavy.句子屬于predication述謂結(jié)構(gòu)BAG（BEINGHEAVY）Itcouldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthehearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Anotherpossibleinterpretationoftheutteranceisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.這句句子的話語意義會隨著語境的變化而變化。有兩種解釋：一種是直截了當?shù)年愂?；另一種就是希望別人能幫他拎包。言語行為理論（SpeechActTheory）Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50softhe20thcentury.Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.言語行為理論是語用學研究的一個重要理論。它是英國哲學家約翰奧斯丁在20世紀50年代提出。從哲學意義上對語言交際的本質(zhì)進行解釋，目的在于回答“用語言干什么”這個問題。(Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?)Austinmadeadistinctionbetweenwhathecalled“constatives”and“performatives”.Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable；performativesweresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable奧斯丁對表述句和施為句進行區(qū)分。表述句用來陳述和描述；施為句不陳述事實，也不描述情況，且不能驗證。四句典型：Ido.InamethisshipElizabeth.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.這四個例子都是規(guī)約化的例子。但是說話是通過講話來實施某種行為的這個理論，把所有非規(guī)約化的行為包括進來，比如陳述，許諾，請求和建議。這種理論被成為言語行為理論。Lateron,Austingaveuphisinitialdistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformatives.Hesetanewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeakersintention；itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething；itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance；itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.之后奧斯丁建立了三種行為的新模式?！把詢?nèi)行為，言外行為，言后行為。”言內(nèi)行為是說出詞，短語，分句的行為，是通過句法，詞匯和音位等手段表達字面意義的行為。言外行為是表達說話人意圖的行為，是在說話過程中所完成的行為。言后行為是通過說話完成或通過說話所產(chǎn)生的行為，是由話語所帶來的結(jié)果或變化。Ex：Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewordsandexpressedwhatthewordsliterallymean.此句的言后行為就是讓人關(guān)門。Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeakersmessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstoasksomeonetoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto；thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.Linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutionaryactbecausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeakersintention.JohnSearlehasmadehisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.Speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories.語言學家在上述言語行為中最感興趣的是言外行為，是說話人如何表達他的意圖和聽說人如何識別說話人的意圖。美國哲學語言學家約翰舍爾對言語行為理論作出了很大的貢獻。他將言外行為分成了五種基本類型：1闡述類（representatives）(Istate)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.2指令類：（directives）Openthewindow.3承諾類：（commisives）Ipromisetocome.4表達類：（expressives）Itsreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.5宣告類：（declarations）Inowdeclarethefloorisopen.Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomethingsbeingthetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizingareamongthemosttypicaloftherepresentatives.Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint.,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforce.Swearguessbelieve會話原則principleofconversationAstheobjectiveofpragmaticstudyistoexplainhowlanguageisusedtoeffectsuccessfulcommunicationandconversation,asthemostcommonandnaturalformofcommunicationhasbecomethefocusofinterestformanyscholars.語用學研究的目的是要解釋語言是如何用來進行成功交際的。PaulGricefoundthatformallogiccouldntbeappliedtonaturallanguage,andthusconcludedthatnaturallanguagehasitsownlogic.保羅格賴斯發(fā)現(xiàn)形式邏輯對自然語言不適用并因此得出結(jié)論：自然語言有自己的邏輯。Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate；otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperationPrinciple.(合作原則)其觀點：在會話中，參與會話的人首先得愿意合作，否則會話無法進行。此基本原則稱為合作原則，簡稱CP。Therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:這條基本原則包括四種準則：Themaximofquantity:數(shù)量準則：1所說的話應(yīng)包含（當前交談目的）所需要的信息。2所說的話不包含超出需要的信息。Themaximofquality:質(zhì)量原則：1不要說自知是虛假的話。2不要說缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話。Themaximofrelation:關(guān)聯(lián)準則：要有關(guān)聯(lián)Themaximofmanner:方式準則：1避免晦澀2避免歧義3說話要簡練4要有條理EX:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives？Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.違反了數(shù)量原則Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight？ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltoday.TheybothknewthatBfeelingsowell,butBcheatedA.BbreaksQuality