1、國際商務談判羅伊列維奇原版第十章 IntroductionWe discuss this chapter by the following manner :First we discuss some of the factors that make international negotiation different. Then we turn to a discussion of the most frequent studied aspect of international negotiation. Next we examine the influence of culture on

2、 negotiations . We conclude this chapter with a discussion of cultural responsive strategies available to the international negotiator. The titles What Makes International Negotiation Different? Conceptualizing Culture and Negotiation.The Influence of Culture on Negotiation. (both the managerial per

3、spectives and the research perspectives ) Culturally Responsive Negotiation Strategies.Environmental contextPolitical and legal pluralismInternational economicsForeign governments and bureaucraciesInstabilityIdeologyCultureExternal stakeholder Immediate context Relative bargaining powerLevels of con

4、flict Relationship between negotiators Desired outcomes Immediate stakeholders 1、What makes international negotiation different? Environmental contextImmediate contextNegotiation process and outcomesRelative bargaining power of negotiators and nature of dependenceImmediate stakeholdersDesired outcom

5、e of negotiationsRelationship between negotiators before and during negotiation Levels of conflict underlying potential negotiationsLegal pluralismPolitical pluralismCurrency fluctuations and foreign exchangeForeign Govt and bureaucracyInstability and changeIdeological differencesCultural difference

6、sExternal contextFIGURE 16.1 The context of international negotiations Environmental contextPolitical and legal pluralism：Taxes that an organization paysLabor codes or standards Different codes of contract law and standards of enforcement Political consideration.International economicsThe exchange v

7、alue of international currencies naturally fluctuatesAny change in the value of currency Environmental contextForeign governmentsThe extent to the government regulates industries and organizations InstabilityLack of resource that American commonly expect during business negotiation (paper,electricit

8、y,computers);shortage of other goods and service (food, reliable transportation potable water); and political instability (coups, sudden shifts in government policy, major currency revaluations ) Environmental context Salacuse (1988) suggests that negotiators facing unstable circumstance should incl

9、ude clauses in their contacts that allow easy cancellation or neutral arbitration, and consider purchasing insurance policies to guarantee contract provisions. IdeologyIndividualism and capitalism Americans believe strongly in individual rights, the superiority of private investment, and the importa

10、nce of making a profit in business. Negotiators from other countries do not share this ideology. Environmental contextCulturePeople from different cultures appear to negotiate differently, behaving differently, and may also interpret the fundamental processes of negotiations differentlydeductive or

11、inductiveExternal stakeholders The various people and organizations that have an interest or stake in the outcome of the negotiationby Phatak and Habib,1996.Include business associations, labor unions ,embassies, and industry associations ,among others. Immediate contextRelative bargaining powerSome

12、 of factors may influence the relative bargaining power :The amount of venture (financial and other investment) ;The management control of the project; The special access to markets; distribution systems or managing government relations Levels of conflictThe level of conflict and type of interdepend

13、ence between the parties to a cross-cultural negotiation will influence the negotiation process and outcome. Those based on ethnicity ,identity or geography are more difficult to resolveImmediate contextRelationship between negotiators The history of relations between the parties will influence the

14、current negotiation, just as the current negotiation will become part of any future negotiations between the parties .Desired outcomesSome tangible and intangible factors play a large role in determining the outcomes of international negotiations. Immediate contextImmediate stakeholdersIt contains t

15、he negotiators themselves and the people they directly represent, such as their managers ,employers and boards of directors. (Phatak and Habib,1996) How do we explain international negotiation outcomes?As we discussed in figure16.1,(the models from Phatak and Habib). One-variable arguments cannot ex

16、plain conflicting international negotiation outcomes.(Mayer1992) The negotiation processes and outcomes are influenced by many factors, and that the influence of these factors can change in magnitude over time. The challenge for every international negotiator is to understand the simultaneous, multi

17、ple influences of several factors on the negotiation process and outcome and to update this understanding regularly as circumstance change.2. Conceptualizing culture and negotiationFour ways to conceptualizing culture in international negotiation: -Culture as Learned Behavior-Culture as Shared Value

18、-Culture as Dialectic-Culture in Context _ Culture as Learned BehaviorThis approach to understanding the effect of culture documents the systematic negotiation behavior of people in different cultures. It concentrates on creating a catalog of behavior at foreign negotiators should expect when enteri

19、ng a host culture _Culture as Shared ValueThis approach to conceptualizing culture concentrates on understanding central values and norm and then building a model for how these norms and values influence negotiation within that culture .Geert Hofstede (1980a, 1980b,1989,1991) conducted an extensive

20、program of research on cultural dimensions in international business and suggested that four dimensions could be used to describe the important differences among the cultures : Individualism/Collectivism; Power Distance ; Career Success/Quality of Life; Uncertainty Avoidance;Individualism/Collectivi

21、sm;Individualistic societies encourage their young to be independent and to look after themselves. Collectivistic societies integrate individuals into cohesive groups that take responsibility for the welfare of each individual. Hofstede suggest that focus on relationships in collectivist societies p

22、lays a critical role in negotiations, contrast this with individualistic societies, in which negotiators are considered interchangeable, and competency is an important consideration when choosing a negotiation.Power DistanceThe power distance dimension describes “the extent to which the less powerfu

23、l members of organization and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. According to Hofstede ,cultures with greater power distance will be more likely to concentrate decision making at top, and all important decisions will have to be finalized by the leader.Cultures with l

24、ower power distance are more likely to spread the decision making throughout the organization, and while leaders are respected, it is also possible to question their decisions.Career Success/Quality of LifeAccording to Hosstede(1989), this dimension influences negotiation by increasing the competiti

25、veness when negotiators from career success cultures meet; negotiators from quality of life cultures are more likely t have empathy for the other party and to seek compromise.Uncertainty Avoidance This dimension indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or

26、comfortable in unstructured situations. Negotiators from high uncertainty avoidance cultures are less comfortable with ambiguous and are more likely to seek stable rules and procedures when they are negotiate. Negotiators from low uncertainty avoidance cultures are likely to adapt to quickly changin

27、g situations and will be less uncomfortable when the rules of the negotiation are ambiguous or shifting. Shalom schwarzs 10 cultural values He concentrates on identifying motivational goal underlying cultural values and found 10 values. These 10 values may conflict or be compatible with each other.H

28、e also proposed that the 10 values may be represented in two bipolar dimensions: Openness to change /conservatism self-transcendence/ self-enhancementSelf-directionuniversalismBenevolenceconformityTraditionsecurityPowerAchievementHedonismSimulationOpennessTo changeSelf-transcendenceConservationSelf-

29、enhancementFIGURE 10.2 Schwartzs 10 cultural Values_ Culture as Dialectic Janosik (1987) recognizes that all cultures contain dimensions or tensions that are called dialectics. This approach has advantage over the culture-as-shares-values approach because it can explain variations within cultures. -

30、Culture in ContextTinsley,Brett,Shapiro, and Okumura(2004) proposed cultural complexity theory in which they suggest that cultural values will have a direct effect on negotiations in some circumstances and a moderated effect in others. Values are proposed to have a direct when they have strong effec

31、ts across several different contexts, whereas values that have a moderated effect are those that have different contextual instigators in the culture.3.The Influence of Culture on Negotiation. (both the managerial and the research perspectives ) FIRST: The managerial PerspectiveCultural differences

32、have been suggested to influence negotiation in several different ways. Table 10.2 summarizes 10 different ways that culture can influence negotiations. Ten Ways That Culture Can Influence NegotiationNegotiation Factors Range of Cultural Responses Definition of negotiation Contract RelationshipNegot

33、iation opportunity Selection of negotiations ProtocolCommunication Time sensitivity Risk propensity Groups versus individualsNature of agreementsEmotionalism Distributive ExpertsInformal Direct High High Collectivism Specific High IntegrativeTrust associatesFormal Indirect Low Low Individualism Gene

34、ral Low SECOND: Research perspective A conceptual model of where culture may influence negotiation has been developed by Jeanne Brett(2001).(see Figure 10.3) His model identifies how the culture of both negotiators can influence the setting of priorities and strategies, the identification of the pot

35、ential for integrative agreement, and the pattern of interaction between negotiation . Brett suggests that cultural values should have strong effect on negotiation interests and priorities , while cultural norms will influence negotiation strategies and the pattern of interaction between negotiators

36、 will also be influenced by the psychological processes of negotiators ,and culture has an influence on these processes.FIGURE 10.3 How Culture Affects Negotiation Interests and prioritiesCulture AnegotiatorStrategies Potential for IntegrativeagreementType of agreementPattern of interactionInterests

37、and prioritiesCulture BnegotiatorStrategies 4.Culturally Responsive Negotiation Strategies Negotiators should be aware of the effects of cultural differences on negotiation and to take them into account when they negotiate. Stephen Weiss(1994) has proposed a useful way of thinking about the options

38、we have when negotiating with someone from another culture. Weisss culturally responsive strategies may be arranges into three groups, based on the level of familiarity (low, moderate, high) that negotiator has with the other partys culture.Low familiarity Employ Agents or Advisers (Unilateral Strat

39、egy)This relationship may range from having the other party conduct the negotiations under supervision (agent) to receiving regular or occasional advice during the negotiation Bring in a Mediator (Joint Strategy)Interpreters will often play this role, providing both parties with more information than the mere translation of words. Mediators may encourage one side or the other to adopt one cultures approaches or a third culture approach.Moder