Schoolofchemicalengineeringandpharmaceuticaltesttubes試管 testtubeholder試管夾testtubebrush試管刷testtuberack試管架beaker燒杯stirring攪拌棒thermometer溫度計(jì)boilingflask長(zhǎng)頸燒并F Florenceflask平底燒瓶flask,roundbottom,two-neckboilingflask,three-neckconicalflask錐形瓶wide-mouthbottle廣口瓶graduatedcylinder量筒gasmeasuringtube管volumetricflask容量瓶transferpipette移液管Geiserburette(stopcock)酸式滴定管 funnel漏斗Mohrburette(withpinchcock)堿式滴定管watchglass表面皿evaporatingdish蒸發(fā)皿groundjoint磨口連接Petridish有蓋培養(yǎng)皿desiccators干燥皿long-stemfunnel長(zhǎng)頸漏斗filterfunnel過(guò)濾漏斗Bichnerfunnel瓷漏斗separatoryfunnel分液漏斗Hirshfunnel赫爾什漏斗 filterflask吸濾瓶Thielemeltingpointtube蒂勒熔點(diǎn)管plasticsqueezottl理料洗瓶medicinedropper藥用滴管rubberpipettebulb吸球microspatula微型壓舌板pipet吸量管 mortarandpestle研體及研缽filterpaper濾名氏 Bunsenburner煤氣燈burettestand滴定管架supportring支撐環(huán)ringstand環(huán)架 distillinghead蒸儲(chǔ)頭side-armdistillationflask側(cè)臂蒸儲(chǔ)燒瓶aircondenser空氣冷凝器centrifugetube離心管fractionatingcolumn精(分M留管Grahamcondenser蛇形冷凝器crucible土甘土為crucibletongs土甘蝸鉗beakertong燒楙甘economyextensionclampO"展夾extensionclamp弓I夾utilityclamp鐵試管夾hoseclamp軟管夾buretteclamppinchcock;pinchclamp彈簧夾screwclamp螺絲鉗ringclamp環(huán)形夾goggles護(hù)目鏡stopcock活塞wiregauze鐵絲網(wǎng)analyticalbalance分析天平分析化學(xué)absoluteerror絕對(duì)誤差accuracy準(zhǔn)確度assay化驗(yàn)analyte(被calibration校準(zhǔn)constituent成分coefficientofvariation變異系數(shù)confidencelevel置信水平detectionlimi檢出限determination1^ estimations算equivalentpoint等當(dāng)點(diǎn)grosserro怠誤差impurity雜質(zhì)indicator豚濟(jì)ijinterference干擾internalstandard內(nèi)標(biāo)levelofsignificance顯著limitofquantitation定量限masking掩蔽matrix基體precision精確度primarystandard原始標(biāo)準(zhǔn)物 purity純度qualitativeanalysi旋性分析quantitativeanalysis定量分析randomerror偶然誤差reagent試齊Urelativeerror相對(duì)誤差robustness耐用性sample樣品relativestandarddeviation相對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)selectivity選擇性sensitivity靈敏度specificity專屬性titration滴定significantfigure有效數(shù)字 solubilityproduct溶度積standardadditions力口standarddeviation標(biāo)準(zhǔn)偏差standardization標(biāo)定法stoichiometricpoint化學(xué)計(jì)量點(diǎn)systematicerror系統(tǒng)誤差有機(jī)化學(xué)acidanhydride酸酎acylhalide酰鹵alcohol醇aldehyde醛aliphatic脂肪族白勺alkene烯煌alkyne快allyl烯丙基amide氨基化合物aminoacid氨基酸aromaticcompound amine胺butyl丁基aromaticring芳環(huán)苯環(huán)branched-chain支鏈chain鏈carbonyl厥基carboxyl竣基chelate螯合chiralcenter手性中心conformers構(gòu)象copolymer共聚物derivative衍生物dextrorotatary右旋性的diazotization重氮化作用dichloromethane二氯甲烷ester酯 ethyl乙基fattyacid脂肪酸functionalgroup官能團(tuán)generalformula通式glycerol甘油,丙三醇heptyl庚基heterocyclie雜環(huán)的hexyl己基homolog同系物hydrocarbon煌,（化合物hydrophilic親水白向hydrophobic疏水的hydroxide山基ketone酮levorotatory左旋性的 methyl甲基molecularformula分子式 monomer單體octyl辛基openchain開(kāi)鏈opticalactivity旋光性（度）organic有機(jī)的organicchemistry有機(jī)化學(xué)organiccompounds有機(jī)化合物pentyl戊基phenol苯酚phenyl苯基polymer聚合物，聚合體propyl丙基ring-shaped為處吉構(gòu)zwitterion兼性離子saturatedcompound飽和化合物sidechain側(cè)鏈straightchain直鏈 tautomer互變（異構(gòu)）體structuralformula結(jié)構(gòu)式triglyceride甘油三惻旨unsaturatedcompound不飽和化合物物理化學(xué)activationenergy活化能adiabat絕熱線amplitude振幅collisiontheory0!理論empiricaltemperature假^1度enthalpy烙enthalpyofcombustion燃燒燃enthalpyoffusion熔化熱enthalpyofhydration水合熱enthalpyofreaction反應(yīng)熱enthalpyofsublimationenthalpyofvaporization汽化熱entropy嫡f(shuō)irstlaw熱力學(xué)第一定律firstorderreaction一級(jí)MSfreeenergy自由能 Hess'slaw斯定律Gibbsfreeenergyofformation吉布斯生成能heatcapacity熱容internalenergy內(nèi)能isobar等壓線isochore等容線isotherm等溫線kineticenergy動(dòng)能latentheat潛能Planck'constant普朗克常數(shù)potentialenergy勢(shì)能quantum量子quantummechanics量子力學(xué)ratelaw速率定律specificheat比熱spontaneous自發(fā)的standardenthalpychange標(biāo)準(zhǔn)始變standardentropyofreaction標(biāo)準(zhǔn)反應(yīng)嫡standardmolarentropy標(biāo)Wl爾嫡standardpressure標(biāo)壓statefunction狀態(tài)函數(shù) thermalenergy熱能thermochemicalequation熱化學(xué)方程式thermodynamicequilibrium熱力學(xué)平衡uncertaintyprinciple測(cè)不準(zhǔn)定理zeroorderreaction零級(jí)反應(yīng)zeropointenergy零點(diǎn)能課文詞匯實(shí)驗(yàn)安全及記錄eyewash眼藥水first-aidkit急救箱gasline輸氣管safetyshower緊急沖淋房waterfaucet水龍頭flowchart流程圖looseleaf活頁(yè)單元操作分類：heattransfer傳熱Liquid-liquidextraction液液萃取liquid-solidleaching過(guò)濾vaporpressure蒸氣壓membraneseparation薄膜分離空氣污染:carbondioxide二氧化碳carbonmonoxide一氧化碳particulatematterOZ物質(zhì)photochemicalsmog 煙霧primarypollutants一封虧染物secondarypollutants二次?我物stratosphericozonedepletion平流層臭氧消耗sulfurdioxide二氧化硫 volcaniceruption火山爆發(fā)食品化學(xué)：aminoacid氨基酸，胺aminogroup氨基empiricalformula實(shí)驗(yàn)式，經(jīng)驗(yàn)式 fattyacid脂肪酸peptidebonds肽鍵polyphenoloxidase多酚氧化酶salivaryamylase唾液淀粉酶steroidhormone管類激素tablesugar蔗糖triacylglycerol三酰甘油，甘油三酯食品添力口齊”：acesulfame-K乙?；前匪徕洠环N甜味劑adrenalgland腎上腺ionizingradiation致電離輻射foodadditives食品添加劑monosodiumglutamate味精，谷氨酸一鈉（味精的化學(xué)成分）naturalflavors天然食用香料，女然食用調(diào)料nutrasweet天冬甜素 potassiumbromide澳化鉀propylgallate沒(méi)食子酸丙酯sodiumchloride氯化鈉sodiumnitraten硝酸鈉sodiumnitrite亞硝酸鈉transfats反式脂肪geneticfood轉(zhuǎn)基因食品foodpoisoning食物中毒hazardanalysisandcriticalcontrolpoints(HACCP)危害分析關(guān)鍵控制點(diǎn)技術(shù)maternalandchildhealthcare婦幼保健護(hù)理nationalpatriotichealthcampaigncommittee(NPHCC)全國(guó)愛(ài)國(guó)衛(wèi)生運(yùn)動(dòng)委員會(huì) ruralhealth農(nóng)村衛(wèi)生管理thestatefoodanddrugadministration(SFDA)國(guó)家食品藥品監(jiān)督管理局光譜:AstronomicalSpectroscopy天文光譜學(xué)LaserSpectroscopy激光光譜學(xué)MassSpectrometry質(zhì)譜AtomicAbsorptionSpectroscopy原子吸收光譜AttenuatedTtalReflectanceSpectroscopy^^反射ElectronParamagneticSpectroscopy電子順磁譜ElectronSpectroscopy?^&ifInfraredSpectroscopyE外光譜FourierTransformSpectrosopy傅里葉變換光譜Gamma-raySpectroscopy伽瑪射線MultiplexorFrequency-ModulatedSpectroscopy復(fù)用或頻率調(diào)制光譜 X-raySpectroscopyX射線光譜色譜:GasChromatography氣相色譜HighPerformanceLiquidChromatography高效液相色譜Thin-LayerChromatography薄層色譜magnesiumsilicategel硅酸鎂凝膠retentiontime保留時(shí)間mobilephase流動(dòng)相stationaryphase固定相反應(yīng)類型：agitatedtank攪拌槽catalyticreactor催化反應(yīng)器batchstirredtankreactor間歇攪拌反應(yīng)釜continuousstirredtank連續(xù)攪拌釜exothermicreactions放熱反應(yīng)pilotplant試驗(yàn)工廠fluidizedbedReactor流動(dòng)床反應(yīng)釜multiphasechemicalreactions多相化學(xué)反應(yīng)packedbedreactor填充床反應(yīng)器redoxreaction氧化還原反應(yīng)reductant-oxidant氧化還原劑acidbasereaction酸堿反應(yīng)additionreaction力口chemicalequation化學(xué)方程式valenceelectron價(jià)電子combinationreaction化合反應(yīng)hybridorbital雜化軌道decompositionreaction分解反應(yīng)substitutionreaction取代（置換）反應(yīng)Lesson5ClassificationofUnitOperations單元操作Fluidflow 流體流動(dòng)它涉及的原理是確定任一流體從一個(gè)點(diǎn)到另一個(gè)點(diǎn)的流動(dòng)和輸送。Heattransfer傳熱這個(gè)單元操作涉及的原理是控制不同位置處熱量和能量的積累和轉(zhuǎn)移。Evaporation蒸發(fā)它涉及易揮發(fā)溶劑的蒸發(fā)， 這些溶劑來(lái)自不易揮發(fā)的溶質(zhì)，諸如鹽或溶液中任意其他物質(zhì)。Drying干燥這個(gè)操作是將易揮發(fā)的液體（通常為水）從固體物質(zhì)中移除。Distillation蒸儲(chǔ)蒸儲(chǔ)是基于不同液體的蒸汽壓不同，通過(guò)加熱煮沸將一個(gè)液體混合物分離。Absorption吸收吸收是將一種化合物從氣體流中轉(zhuǎn)移到液體中。Membraneseparation薄膜分離這個(gè)過(guò)程包含從液體或氣體的溶質(zhì)通過(guò)一個(gè)暫時(shí)性的薄膜擴(kuò)散到另一液體中。Liquid-liquidextraction 液液萃取在這個(gè)操作中，溶液中的溶質(zhì)被轉(zhuǎn)移到與之接觸的，與溶液相對(duì)不溶的里一種液體溶劑中。Liquid-solidleaching過(guò)濾過(guò)濾用于處理液體中的細(xì)微待分離固體，并可得到包含在固體中的溶質(zhì)移出。Crystallization結(jié)晶該操作可實(shí)現(xiàn)溶質(zhì)的回收，例如溶液中的鹽可通過(guò)液體中的溶質(zhì)沉淀獲得。Mechanicalphysicalseparation機(jī)械物理分離機(jī)械物理分離是應(yīng)用機(jī)械手段來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)固體、液體或氣體的分離。例如過(guò)濾、沉淀和縮小體積，機(jī)械分離常被歸入分離的單元操作。Lesson6FractionalDistillation4M留分儲(chǔ)是根據(jù)混合物里面化合物的沸點(diǎn)， 將其加熱到足夠高的溫度從而達(dá)到分離。⑴Apparatus實(shí)驗(yàn)裝置：圓底燒瓶錐形瓶李比希冷凝器抗爆沸原板顆粒溫度計(jì)橡膠塞(除非快速適應(yīng)使用)(2)Method試驗(yàn)方法：例如，乙醇和水的混合物蒸儲(chǔ)。酒精在78.5C時(shí)沸騰，而水的沸點(diǎn)是100C。因此，通過(guò)輕輕加熱混合物，酒精會(huì)首先沸騰。一些混合物形成共沸物，在較低的溫度下的那個(gè)混合物會(huì)比另一成分的化合物先沸騰。在乙醇的例子中,由95%醇和5%勺水組成的混合物煮沸到78.2C。所以不能完全將乙醇蒸播提純。該實(shí)驗(yàn)裝置如圖所示。將混合物裝入圓底燒瓶并放入一些防爆沸小粒，并且將分儲(chǔ)管安裝在頂部。當(dāng)混合物沸騰時(shí)，蒸汽上升到分儲(chǔ)管。蒸汽在冷凝管中凝結(jié)，向下流動(dòng)回流冷卻蒸儲(chǔ)物聚成液體。只有大部分揮發(fā)性的蒸汽處于氣體狀態(tài)一直到達(dá)頂部。在分儲(chǔ)管頂部的蒸汽幾乎是純乙醇。然后傳遞到冷凝管，使它冷卻下來(lái)，直到它液化。這個(gè)過(guò)程持續(xù)到將所有的乙醇從混合物中蒸發(fā)出來(lái)。這一點(diǎn)能夠通過(guò)溫度計(jì)中溫度的急劇上升而識(shí)別出從乙醇的沸點(diǎn)到水的沸點(diǎn)。(3)IndustrialusesofF…工業(yè)分儲(chǔ)煉油廠最重要的工業(yè)應(yīng)用分儲(chǔ)是原油的分儲(chǔ)。除了規(guī)模以外，這個(gè)過(guò)程的原則類似于以上的實(shí)驗(yàn)室方法，連續(xù)供料和操作。而事實(shí)上，原油由許多不同的化合物混合在一起。分儲(chǔ)塔的柱子上有一出口能夠允許不同溫度段的不同微分有規(guī)律的溢流出來(lái)，具有高度揮發(fā)性的氣體將會(huì)從最頂端的閥門(mén)逸出，而揮發(fā)性較小的筑路焦油則從底部出來(lái)。Lesson7Crystallization結(jié)晶化結(jié)晶是一種化學(xué)家利用它凈化固體化合物的技術(shù)。這是一種每個(gè)化學(xué)家在實(shí)驗(yàn)室必須熟練掌握的基本程序。結(jié)晶是以溶解度原則為基礎(chǔ) ：化合物(溶質(zhì))更傾向于溶于熱的液體(溶劑)而非冷的液體。如果允許飽和熱溶液冷卻，溶質(zhì)不再溶于溶劑和形成純化合物晶體。雜質(zhì)從生長(zhǎng)的晶體中被排除和純固態(tài)晶體可通過(guò)過(guò)濾從溶解的雜質(zhì)中被分離。(1)加熱溶劑至沸騰，把固體放入一個(gè)錐形瓶重結(jié)晶。(2)向含有固體的錐形瓶中倒入少量的熱溶劑。(3)強(qiáng)烈振蕩錐形瓶使固體溶解。(4)將錐形瓶放在蒸氣浴上，以保持溶液高溫。(5)如果仍有不溶解固體，可以加入少量溶劑和強(qiáng)烈振蕩。(6)當(dāng)所有固體都溶解了，把錐形瓶放在工作臺(tái)上。不要?jiǎng)铀?7)過(guò)一會(huì)兒后，晶體出現(xiàn)在錐形瓶中。(8)你現(xiàn)在可以把錐形瓶放入冰浴中來(lái)完成結(jié)晶過(guò)程。Lesson11HeatTransfer傳熱BasicsofHeatTransfer基本傳熱Inthesimplestofterms,thedisciplineofheattransferisconcernedwithonlytwothings:temperature,andtheflowofheat.Temperaturerepresentstheamountofthermalenergyavailable,whereasheatflowrepresentsthemovementofthermalenergyfromplacetoplace.在最簡(jiǎn)單的術(shù)語(yǔ)，傳熱學(xué)科關(guān)注的只有兩件事：溫度，和熱流量。溫度是熱能源的數(shù)量，而熱流代表的熱能從一個(gè)地方移動(dòng)到的地方。Onamicroscopicscale,thermalenergyisrelatedtothekineticenergyofmolecules.Thegreateramaterial'stemperature,thegreaterthethermalagitationofitsconstituentmolecules(manifestedbothinlinearmotionandvibrationalmodes).Itisnaturalforregionscontaininggreatermolecularkineticenergytopassthisenergytoregionswithlesskineticenergy.在微觀尺度，熱能是分子的動(dòng)能相關(guān)。更大的物質(zhì)的溫度，其組成分子的熱運(yùn)動(dòng)更大的 (表現(xiàn)在直線運(yùn)動(dòng)模式)和振動(dòng)。含有大分子的動(dòng)能來(lái)傳遞能量到較小的動(dòng)能的地區(qū)是自然的。 Severalmaterialpropertiesservetomodulatetheheattransferredbetweentworegionsatdifferingtemperatures.Examplesincludethermalconductivities,specificheats,materialdensities,fluidvelocities,fluidviscosities,surfaceemissivities,andmore.Takentogether,thesepropertiesservetomakethesolutionofmanyheattransferproblemsaninvolvedprocess. 幾種材料的性能起到調(diào)節(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移之間的兩個(gè)區(qū)域在不同溫度下的熱。例子包括的熱傳導(dǎo)率，比熱，密度，流體速度，流體粘度，表面的發(fā)射率，和更多?？傊@些特性使許多傳熱問(wèn)題，一個(gè)復(fù)雜的過(guò)程，解決方案。.HeatTransferMechanisms傳熱機(jī)制Heattransfermechanismscanbegroupedinto3broadcategories:傳熱機(jī)制可以分為3大類：Conduction:Regionswithgreatermolecularkineticenergywillpasstheirthermalenergytoregionswithlessmolecularenergythroughdirectmolecularcollisions,aprocessknownasconduction.Inmetals,a

significantportionofthetransportedthermalenergyisalsocarriedbyconduction-bandelectrons.傳導(dǎo)：更大的分子動(dòng)能的地區(qū)將通過(guò)他們的熱能通過(guò)分子的直接碰撞不分子的能量區(qū)域， 這個(gè)過(guò)程被稱為傳導(dǎo)。在金屬的熱能源，運(yùn)輸?shù)囊粋€(gè)重要部分，也是由導(dǎo)帶電子進(jìn)行。Convection:Whenheatconductsintoastaticfluiditleadstoalocalvolumetricexpansion.Asaresultofgravity-inducedpressuregradients,theexpandedfluidparcelbecomesbuoyantanddisplaces,therebytransportingheatbyfluidmotion(i.e.convection)inadditiontoconduction.Suchheat-inducedfluidmotionininitiallystaticfluidsisknownasfreeconvection.對(duì)流：當(dāng)熱傳遞到一個(gè)靜態(tài)流體導(dǎo)致局部體積膨脹。作為一個(gè)結(jié)果，誘導(dǎo)的壓力梯度，重力，浮力和流體包裹成為擴(kuò)大移除，從而輸送熱流體運(yùn)動(dòng)（即對(duì)流）除了傳導(dǎo)。這樣的熱誘導(dǎo)的流體運(yùn)動(dòng)的最初的靜態(tài)液體被稱為自由對(duì)流。in

beRadiation:Forcaseswherethefluidisalreadymotion,heatconductedintothefluidwilltransportedawaychieflybyfluidconvection.Thesecases,knownasforcedconvection,requireapressuregradienttodrivethefluidmotion,asopposedtogravitygradienttoinducemotionthroughbuoyancy.in

be輻射：對(duì)于流體已經(jīng)在運(yùn)動(dòng)，進(jìn)行了流體熱將被運(yùn)走，主要是由流體對(duì)流。這些情況下，被稱為強(qiáng)制對(duì)流，需要的壓力梯度驅(qū)動(dòng)的流體的運(yùn)動(dòng)，而不是一個(gè)重力梯度誘導(dǎo)運(yùn)動(dòng)通過(guò)浮力.Lesson14AirPollution大氣污染Airpollutionisthehumanintroductionintotheatmospherechemicals,particulatematter,orbiologicalmaterialsthatcauseharmordiscomforttohumansorotherlivingorganisordamagesthenaturalenvironment.Airpollutioncausesdeathsandrespiratorydisease.Airpollutionisoftenidentifwithmajorstationarysources,butthegreatestsourceofemissionsismobilesources,mainlyautomobiles.GasessucNotethatsomepollutantsmaybebothprimaryandsecondary:ascarbondioxide,whichcontributetoglobalwarminAirpollutionisthehumanintroductionintotheatmospherechemicals,particulatematter,orbiologicalmaterialsthatcauseharmordiscomforttohumansorotherlivingorganisordamagesthenaturalenvironment.Airpollutioncausesdeathsandrespiratorydisease.Airpollutionisoftenidentifwithmajorstationarysources,butthegreatestsourceofemissionsismobilesources,mainlyautomobiles.GasessucNotethatsomepollutantsmaybebothprimaryandsecondary:ascarbondioxide,whichcontributetoglobalwarming,havethatis,theyarebothemitteddirectlyandformedfromothertsprimarypollutants.recentlygainedrecognitionaspollutantsbyclimatescientiswhiletheyalsorecognizethatcarbondioxideisessentialfoplantlifethroughphotosynthesis.是通過(guò)光合作用的植物生命所必需的。Theatmosphereisacomplex,dynamicnaturalgaseoussystemthatisessentialtosupportlifeonplanetEarth.StratosphericozonedepletionduetoairpollutionhaslongbeenrecognizedasathreattohumanhealthaswellastotheEarth'secosystems.大氣是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的，動(dòng)態(tài)的天然氣系統(tǒng)，來(lái)支持地球上的生命本質(zhì)。平流層臭氧耗竭因空氣污染一直是威脅人類健康和地球的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。Pollutants污染物Anairpollutantisknownasasubstanceintheairthatcancauseharmtohumansandtheenvironment.Pollutantscanbeintheformofsolidparticles,liquiddroplets,orgases.Inaddition,theymaybenaturalormanade.一種空氣污染物被稱為空氣中的物質(zhì)， 可以對(duì)人體和環(huán)境造成的危害。污染物可在固體顆粒，形成液滴，或氣體。此外，他們可能是天然的或人造的。PollutantscanbeclassifiedaseitherprimaryorsecondaryUsuallyprimarypollutantsaresubstancesdirectlyemittedfromaprocesssuchasashfromavolcaniceruption,thecarbonmonoxidegasfromamotorvehicleexhaustorsulfurdioxidereleasedfromfactories.污染物可以被歸類為主要或次要。通常，一個(gè)過(guò)程的主要污染物是從直接排放的物質(zhì)，如火山噴發(fā)的火山灰，一氧化碳?xì)怏w來(lái)自汽車廢氣、二氧化硫釋放從工廠。SecondarypollutantsarenotemitteddirecRythertheyformintheairwhenprimarypollutantsreactorinteract.Animportantexampleofasecondarypollutantisgroundlevelozone-oneofthemanysecondarypollutantsthatmakeupofphotochemicalsmog.ms；次污染物不能直接排放。相反，它們形成在空氣中主要污染物反應(yīng)或相互作用。一種二次污染的一個(gè)重要的例子e丸地面臭氧是光化學(xué)煙霧，使許多二次污染請(qǐng)注意，有些污染物可能是原發(fā)性和繼發(fā)性：即，他們都是直接排放和其他主要污染物的形成。Majorprimarypollutantsproducedbyhumanactivityinclude:主要由人類活動(dòng)產(chǎn)生的主要污染物包括:Sulfuroxides(SOx)especiallysulfurdioxideachemicalcompoundwiththeformulaSO2.SO2isproducedbyvolcanqueolongedexposure.1,3-butadieneisanotherdangerousandinvariousindustrialprocesses.Sincecoalandpetroleumcompoundwhichisoftenassociatedwithindustrialuses.oftencontainsulfurcompounds,theircombustiongeneratessulfurdioxide.FurtheroxidationofSO2,usuallyinthepresofacatalystsuchasNO2,formsH2SO4,andthusacidraiThisisoneofthecausesforconcernovertheenvironmenten蓬發(fā)性有機(jī)化合物是一種重要的室外空氣污染物。在這場(chǎng)n［oftencontainsulfurcompounds,theircombustiongeneratessulfurdioxide.FurtheroxidationofSO2,usuallyinthepresofacatalystsuchasNO2,formsH2SO4,andthusacidraiThisisoneofthecausesforconcernovertheenvironmenten蓬發(fā)性有機(jī)化合物是一種重要的室外空氣污染物。在這場(chǎng)n［星們往往分為不同的類別（甲烷（ CH4）和非甲烷a；Inmvocs。甲烷是一種非常有效的溫室氣體，有助于增強(qiáng)全球變暖。其他煌類VOCs是重要的溫室氣體，通過(guò)產(chǎn)生臭氧和延長(zhǎng)了甲烷在大氣中的壽命的作用，雖然效果取決于當(dāng)?shù)氐目諝赓|(zhì)量。在NMVOC疆香族化合物，苯，甲苯和二甲苯是可疑致癌物質(zhì)，可以通過(guò)延長(zhǎng)曝光導(dǎo)致白血病。丁二烯是另一個(gè)危險(xiǎn)的化合物，通常是用工業(yè)用途有關(guān)的。ParticulatematterParticulates,alternativelyreferredtoasecparticulatematter(PM)orfineparticles,aretinyparticlesofwsolidorliquidsuspendedinagas.Incontrast,aerosolreferstoxipgrticlesandthegastogetherSourcesofparticulatematterfthenbemanmadeornatural.Someparticulatesoccurnaturally,originatingfromvolcanoes,duststorms,forestandgrasslandfires,livingvegetation,andseaspray.Humanactivities,suchastheburningoffossilfuelsinvehicles,powerplantsandvariousindustrialprocessesalsogeneratesignificantamountsofaerosols.Averagedovertheglobe,anthropogenicaerosols—thosemadebyhumanactivities-currentlyaccountforabout10percentofthetotalamountofaerosolsinouratmosphere.Increasedlevelsoffineparticlesintheairarelinkedtohealthhazardssuchasheartdisease,alteredlungfunctionandlungcanceron顆粒物質(zhì)的微粒，或者稱為顆粒物(PM威細(xì)顆粒，是固tis減液體懸浮在空氣中的微小顆粒。相反，氣溶膠是指顆粒與氣體一起。大氣顆粒物源可以是人造或天然。有些顆粒物是自然發(fā)生的，從火山，沙塵暴，森林和草原火災(zāi)，有生命的植物，和浪花。人類活動(dòng)，如燃燒化石燃料的車輛，電廠和各種工業(yè)過(guò)程中也產(chǎn)生了大量的氣溶膠。全球平均的，人為氣溶膠由人類活動(dòng)使目前約占大氣中的氣溶膠總金額的百分之10?？諝庵械奈⒘５乃缴吲c健康的危害，如心臟病，肺功能的改變與肺癌。oxicmetals,suchaslead,cadmiumandcopper.有毒金屬，如鉛，鎘和銅。(NMVOCs).Methaneisanextremelyefficientgreenhousegas(CFCs,從目前禁止使用的產(chǎn)品排放破壞臭氧層。whichcontributestoenhancedglobalwarming.Otherimpactoftheuseofthesefuelsaspowersource硫氧化物（SOX尤其是二氧化硫和二氧化硫的化學(xué)化合物公式。二氧化硫是由火山和各種工業(yè)過(guò)程產(chǎn)生的。從煤和石油中常含有硫化合物,其燃燒產(chǎn)生的二氧化硫。SO2的進(jìn)一步氧化,通常在催化劑的存在下，如NO2,形成硫酸，從而酸雨。這是［2］在使用這些燃料作為動(dòng)力來(lái)源的環(huán)境影響問(wèn)題的原因之一。Nitrogenoxides(NOx)especiallynitrogendioxideareemittfromhightemperaturecombustion.Canbeseenasthebrchazedomeaboveorplumedownwindofcities.NitrogendioisthechemicalcompoundwiththeformulaNO2.Itisoneoseveralnitrogenoxides.Thisreddish-browntoxicgashasacharacteristicsharp,bitingodor.NO2isoneofthemostprominentairpollutants.氮氧化物(NOR特別是二氧化氮是高溫燃燒排放。可以被看作是棕色的圓頂或羽順風(fēng)的城市。二氧化氮NO2與公式的化合物。這是一個(gè)幾個(gè)氮氧化物。這紅棕色的有毒氣體，有一個(gè)特點(diǎn)鮮明，咬的氣味。二是其中最為突出的空氣污染物。Carbonmonoxideiscolourless,odourless,non-irritatingbutverypoisonousgas.Itisaproductbyincompletecombustioffuelsuchasnaturalgas,coalorwood.Vehicularexhausmajorsourceofcarbonmonoxide.一氧化碳是無(wú)色，無(wú)味，無(wú)刺激性的但非常有毒氣體。它是由燃料如天然氣不完全燃燒的產(chǎn)物，煤和木材。汽車尾氣是一氧化碳的主要來(lái)源。Carbondioxide(CO2),agreenhousegasemittedfromcombustion.二氧化碳(CO2,一種溫室氣體排放燃燒。VolatileorganiccompoundsVOCsareanimportantoutdooairpollutant.Inthisfieldtheyareoftendividedintotheseparatecategoriesofmethane((CH4)andnon-methaneChlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),harmfultotheozonelayeremittedfromproductscurrentlybannedfromuse.氯氟燒hydrocarbonVOCsarealsosignificantgreenhousegasesviaNH3.Itisnormallyencounteredasagaswithacharacteristictheirroleincreatingozoneandinprolongingthelifeofmethaneintheatmosphere,althoughtheeffectvariesdependingonlocalairquality.WithintheNMVOCs,thearomaticcompoundsbenzene,tolueneandxylenearesuspectedcarcinogensandmayleadtoleukemiathroughpungentodor.Ammoniacontributessignificantlytothenutritionalneedsofterrestrialorganismsbyservingasaprecursortofoodstuffsandfertilizers.Ammonia,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,isalsoabuildingblockforthesynthesisofmanypharmaceuticalsAlthoughinwideuse,ammoniaisbothcausticandhazardous.

PeroxyacetylnitrateAN)similarlyformedfromNOxaVOCs.氨（NH3）從農(nóng)業(yè)過(guò)程中排放。氨是一種具有氨化合物公式。它通常是作為一種氣體具有刺鼻的氣味遇到。氨對(duì)陸地生物的營(yíng)養(yǎng)需求明顯作為食品和肥料的前兆。氨，直接或間接的影響，也對(duì)許多藥物的合成砌塊。盡管廣泛使用，是堿和有害的氨。過(guò)氧硝酸（PAN的NOx和VOC胴樣構(gòu)成。Minorairpollutantsinclude:輕微的空氣污染物包括:? . Alargenumberofminorhazardousairpollutants.SomeofOdors,suchasfromgarbage,sewage,andindustrialprocessesa _ theseareregulatedinUSAundertheCleanAirActandin氣味，如垃圾，污水，工業(yè)過(guò)程

EuropeundertheAirFrameworkDirective.Radioactivepollutantsproducedbynuclearexplosions,warexplosives,andnaturalprocessessuchastheradioactivedecayofradon.放射性污染物的核爆炸產(chǎn)生的爆炸，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，和自然過(guò)程,

大量小的有害空氣污染物。這些規(guī)定在美國(guó)清潔空氣法案下，歐洲的空氣框架指令。Avarietyofpersistentorganicpollutants,whichcanattachtoparticulatematter如氫的放射性衰變。各種持久性有機(jī)污染物，它可以附著在顆粒物。ofsmokeandsulfurdioxide.Modernsmogdoesnotusuallycomefromcoalbutfromvehicularandindustrialemissionsthatareactedonintheatmospherebysunlighttoformsecondarypollutantsthatalsocombinewiththeprimaryemissionstoformphotochemicalsmog.occurintheatmospherebydayandbynight.AtabnormallyChemistryhaslongbeenanintegralpartofthepharmaceuticalindustryanditsimportanceshouldnotdiminish.Manycurrentlymarketeddrugssuchasthenofsmokeandsulfurdioxide.Modernsmogdoesnotusuallycomefromcoalbutfromvehicularandindustrialemissionsthatareactedonintheatmospherebysunlighttoformsecondarypollutantsthatalsocombinewiththeprimaryemissionstoformphotochemicalsmog.occurintheatmospherebydayandbynight.AtabnormallyChemistryhaslongbeenanintegralpartofthepharmaceuticalindustryanditsimportanceshouldnotdiminish.ManycurrentlymarketeddrugssuchastheneinO3eoplasticagent,paclitaxel,andtheantibiotic,ntvancomycin,arenaturalproducts.Theextractsofplantsandmarineorganismsandtheproductsofsoilbacteriafermentationwillcontinuetobeinvestigatedodiscoveryastheypurification,andpharmacologicallyoftenarepresentsourceandwhichSecondarypollutantsinclude:二次污染物包括：Particulatematterformedfromgaseousprimarypollutantsandcompoundsinphotochemicalsmog.Smogisakindofairpollution;thewordsmogIIisaportmanteauofsmokeandfog.Classicsmogresultsfromlargeamountsofcoalburninginanareacausedbyamixtu顆粒物質(zhì)從氣態(tài)污染物和光化學(xué)煙霧形成的化合物。煙霧是一種空氣污染；一煙霧口是一個(gè)合成煙與霧。結(jié)果經(jīng)典的煙霧從大量的煤炭燃燒面積混合引起的煙塵和二氧化硫。現(xiàn)代的煙霧不經(jīng)常來(lái)自于煤，但從汽車和工業(yè)排放物，作用在大氣中經(jīng)陽(yáng)光照射產(chǎn)生的二次污染物，也與主要排放物結(jié)合形成光化學(xué)煙霧。Groundlevelozone(O3)formedfromNOxandVOCs.Ozcisakeyconstituentofthetroposphere(itisalsoanimportaconstituentofcertainregionsofthestratospherecommonlyknownastheOzonelayer).Photochemicalandchemicalreactionsinvolvingitdrivemanyofthechemicalprocessesconcentrationsoroughtaboutbyhumanactivities(largelythecombustionoffossilfuel),itisapollutant,andaconstituentsmog.地面臭氧（O3）的NOx和VOC翊成。臭氧（O3）是對(duì)流層的關(guān)鍵組成部分（也是俗稱的平流層臭氧層的某些地區(qū)一個(gè)重要的組成部分）。光化學(xué)和化學(xué)反應(yīng)驅(qū)動(dòng)多發(fā)生在白天和夜間的大氣化學(xué)過(guò)程。在由人類活動(dòng)帶來(lái)的異常高濃度（主要是化石燃料的燃燒），它是一種污染物，和煙霧的一個(gè)組成部分。

Persistentorganicpollutants(POPs)areorganiccompoundsthatareresistanttoenvironmentaldegradationthroughchemical,biological,andphotolyticprocesses.Becauseofthis,theyhavebeenobservedtopersistintheenvironment,tobecapableoflongrangetransport,bioaccumulateinhumanandreanimaltissue,biomagnifyinfoodchains,andtohavepotentialsignificantimpactsonhumanhealthandtheenvironment.持久性有機(jī)污染物（POPs是耐環(huán)境退化是通過(guò)化學(xué)，生物有機(jī)化合物，和光解過(guò)程。正因?yàn)槿绱?，他們已觀察到持續(xù)存在于環(huán)境中，能遠(yuǎn)距離運(yùn)輸，生物蓄積在人體和動(dòng)物的組織，在食物鏈的生物放大作用，并具有潛在的顯著的對(duì)人類健康和環(huán)境的影響Lesson21MedicalChemistrythash3otentialsourcesofpowerfulnewdrugsubstances.'Chemistsarecertainlyinvolvedinthisarenaofdrugconductthepainstakingisolation,structuralcharacterizationofactivecomponentswhichmostinminuteamountsinthenaturalhaveextremelycomplexchemicalstructures.Theenormousadvancesinmolecularbiologyhaveresultedinthesuccessfuldevelopmentofbio-engineeredtherapeuticagents,forexample,humaninsulin,Herceptin(Genentechdrugforbreastcancer),andEnbrel(Immunexdrugforrheumatoidarthritis).Itisanticipatedthatmanyotherbiomoleculesmaybeforthcomingforthetreatmentofhumandisease.化學(xué)一直是制藥行業(yè)的一個(gè)組成部分， 其重要性不應(yīng)該減少。許多已上市的藥物如抗腫瘤藥物，紫杉醇，和抗生素，萬(wàn)古霉素，是天然產(chǎn)品。植物和海洋生物和土壤細(xì)菌的發(fā)酵產(chǎn)品提取將繼續(xù)研究的強(qiáng)大的新的藥物的潛在來(lái)源?；瘜W(xué)家確實(shí)參與了這一領(lǐng)域的藥物發(fā)現(xiàn)他們進(jìn)行艱苦的分離，純化和藥理活性成分，其中最常見(jiàn)的是存在于微量的天然來(lái)源， 具有極其復(fù)雜的化學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)表征。在分子生物學(xué)的巨大進(jìn)步已導(dǎo)致在生物工程藥物的研制成功,例如，人胰島素，赫賽?。℅enentech的藥物對(duì)乳腺癌），和Enbrel（內(nèi)克斯風(fēng)濕性關(guān)節(jié)炎藥物）。據(jù)預(yù)計(jì)，許多其他生物分子可能是即將到來(lái)的人類疾病的治療。Howeverthegreatmajorityofexistingdrugsaresmallmolecules(MW-200600)thathavebeensynthesizedby何使化合物的藥物化學(xué)家誰(shuí)也洞察到做和為什么。Suchinsightisgainedbyacquiringanexpandedknowledgebase.Itisimportantforthemedicinalchemisttoknowwhatstructuralcomponentsactaspharmacophoresinexistingdrugs.Pharmacophores,whichcanbeofvaryingcompjexityprisetheessentialstructuralelementsofadrugmoleculethatenableittointeractonthemolecularlevelwithabiologicalmacromoleculesuchasareceptororenzymeandthusimpartapharmacologicaleffect.Themedicinalchemistmustbecomeskilledatanalyzingthestructureactivityrelationships(SAR)thatpertaintotheseriesofcompoundsonwhichheisworking.Thatis,howdoestheactivityinabiologicatestofanalogswithintheserieschangedependingontheintroductionofsubstituentsofvarioussize,polarityandlipophilicityatvariousdomainsoftheparentdrugmolecule?ElucidationoftheSARwithinaseriesofactivecompoundsisthekeytooptimizingthepotencyandotherdesirablebiologicalpropertiesinordertoidentifyanewchemicalentity(NCE)asabonafidedrugcandidate.Quantitativestructureactivityrelationships(QSARareoftenemployedinthiseffort;analysesemployinglinearfreeenergyrelationships,linearregressionandothertechniquescanbeutilizedtocorrelateorganibiologicalactivitywiththeelectronic,steric,polarizabilityandmedicinalchemists.Thereisnoreasontodoubtthatmost(

ofthefuturewillalsofallinthiscategdityisthusimportanttootherphysicallchemicalparametersofthesubstituentgroupsondrugsmbersofaseriesofstructurallyrelatedcompounds.definewhatismeantbymedicinalchemistandwhatroleis這種見(jiàn)解是通過(guò)收購(gòu)擴(kuò)大知識(shí)庫(kù)了。playedbythepractitionersofthissub-disciplineinthepharmaceuticalndustryAtraditionalandperhapssomewhatnarrowdefinitionofmedicinalchemististhatofaresearcher要知道結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)件作為現(xiàn)有藥物的藥效的藥物化學(xué)家很重要。藥效基團(tuán),可以不同的復(fù)雜性，包含一種藥物分子，使其在與生engagedinthedesignandsynthesisofbioactivemolecules.A^P^分子如受體或酶分子水平的相互作用，從而產(chǎn)生partoftheiracademictrain,inmanymedicinalchemistscarrioutdoctoralandpostdoctoralworkthatinvolvedthetotalsynthesisofnaturalproductsandorthedevelopmentofsynmethodologyTheyarehiredbypharmaceuticalcompaniese商理效應(yīng)的結(jié)構(gòu)要素。藥用化學(xué)家必須成為熟練的分析結(jié)構(gòu)-活性關(guān)系（SAR）屬于該系列化合物對(duì)他工作thetic那就是，如何在生物試驗(yàn)活動(dòng)的類似物在一系列becauseoftheskillstheyhavegainedinplanningandconducfinthesynthesisoforganiccompounds.Whilesuchskillscan're的.變化取決于各種大小,取代基的引入極性，和親脂刖體藥物分子在不同領(lǐng)域？在一系列的活性化importantthroughoutchemistschreers,theyaloneareinsufficientforthechallengingtaskofdrugdiscoveryinwhiunliketheacademicenvironmensyntheticchemistryisjustameanstoanendratherthananendinitselfThus,theenterprisingyoungchemicalresearcherwhoenterstheindmustbeableandwillingtoundergoanevolutionfromthat(合物的SAR鑒定是優(yōu)化以及其他優(yōu)良的生物學(xué)特性ich的效力來(lái)確定一個(gè)新的化學(xué)實(shí)體的關(guān)鍵（ NCE）作為■一個(gè)善意的候選藥物。定量結(jié)構(gòu)活性關(guān)系（QSAR等常被用在這方面的努力；分析采用線性自由能關(guān)系，

us累性回歸，和其他技術(shù)可用于生物活性與電子，空間,puresyntheticchemistwhoknowshowtomakecompoundthatofmedicinalchemistwhoalsohasaninsightintowhatmakeandwhys極化和關(guān)聯(lián)，對(duì)一系列的結(jié)構(gòu)上相關(guān)的化合物的取代tobi參數(shù)等physicallchemical成員。然而，現(xiàn)有的藥物，絕大多數(shù)是有機(jī)小分子（mw-200-600）已被藥物化學(xué)家合成了。沒(méi)有理由懷疑大多數(shù)藥物的未來(lái)也屬于這一類。 因此，定義什么是一藥用化學(xué)家II和什么角色是由這一分支學(xué)科的從業(yè)者在制藥工業(yè)中起著重要的。傳統(tǒng)甚至有些狹隘的藥物化學(xué)家是一個(gè)研究員，從事與生物活性分子的設(shè)計(jì)合成。作為他們的學(xué)術(shù)訓(xùn)練的一部分，許多藥物化學(xué)家進(jìn)行博士和博士后工作涉及天然產(chǎn)物的全合成及合成方法的發(fā)展。他們受雇于制藥公司因?yàn)樗麄冊(cè)诓邉澓瓦M(jìn)行合成有機(jī)化合物獲得的技能。 雖然這樣的技能可以在藥店的事業(yè)仍然是重要的， 他們還不足以在藥物發(fā)現(xiàn)的具有挑戰(zhàn)性的任務(wù)， 不同的學(xué)術(shù)環(huán)境，合成化學(xué)只是達(dá)到目的的一種手段， 而不是目的本身。因此，有進(jìn)取心的年輕化學(xué)研究員進(jìn)入行業(yè)必須能夠和愿意接受一個(gè)從純的合成化學(xué)家誰(shuí)知道如Thesynthesisandisolationofpureenantiomershasbecomeincreasinglyimportant.Inthepastchiraldrugsweremostoftenmarketedasracemicmixturessinceitwasnotdeemedcos-effectivetoprovidetheminenantiomerciallypureform.Howeverinmanycasesoneortheotherenantiomersofanopticallyactivedrugmayhaveasignificantlygreaterlevelofthedesiredbiologicalactivityand/orlesssideeffectliabilitythanitsantipode.RegulatoryagenciessuchastheFDAnowroutinelyrequirethateachenantiomerofachiraldrugbeisolatedandevaluatedintestsofefficacy,sideeffects,andtoxicity.Ifoneoftheenantiomersisshowntobeclearlysuperiorthenitislikelythatitistheformthatwillbedevelopedasthedrugcandidate.Thusenantioselectivechemicalreactionswhichcanaffordahighenantiomericexcess(ee)ofoneortheotherofapairofenantiomersarevaluablecomponentsofthemedicinalchemistsysthetictools.EnzymechemistryplaysaprominentroleindrugR&p提供能量，但所需的其他原因。sinceisolatedenzymesormicroorganismscanoftenachieveanenantiospecificchemicaltransformationmuchmoreefficientlyandeconomicallythanconventionalsyntheticmethods.Many—bigpharmaIIcompaniesnowhavededicatedgroupsthatexclusivelystudyenzymaticreactionMol