Chapter5Thismultimediaproductanditscontentsareprotectedundercopyrightlaw.Thefollowingareprohibitedbylaw:anypublicperformanceordisplay,includingtransmissionofanyimageoveranetwork;preparationofanyderivativework,includingtheextraction,inwholeorinpart,ofanyimages;anyrental,lease,orlendingoftheprogram.TheSelf:HowWeAnswertheQuestion“WhoAmI?”Copyright2023,AllynandBacon第1頁(yè)TheSelfThinkingAbouttheSelf:PersonalversusSocialIdentitySelf-Esteem:AttitudesTowardtheSelfSocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfTheSelfasTargetofPrejudiceCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第2頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfPersonal-SocialIdentityContinuum—signifiesthetwodistinctwaysthattheselfcanbecategorizedPersonallevelSelfcanbethoughtofasauniqueindividualHowit’sdescribeddependsonintragroupcomparisons.SocialidentitylevelSelfcanbethoughtofasamemberofagroupHowit’sdescribedisaresultofintergroupcomparisons.Situationalfactorsimpacthowpeopledefinethemselves.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第3頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhoIAmDependsontheSituationPeopleseethemselvesdifferentlydependingonwhichrelationshipsandwhichcontextsareconsidered.Self-Complexity—referstohowtheself-conceptisorganizedHighcomplexity:AspectsoftheselfaredistinctfromoneanotherFailureinonedomainhaslessimpactonone’soverallfeelingsaboutone’sselfLowcomplexity:AspectsoftheselfoverlapeachotherCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第4頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfCultureaffectshowtheselfisperceived.IndependentSelf-Concept—inindividualisticcultures,peopledevelopaself-conceptasseparatefromorindependentofothers.InterdependentSelf-Concept—incollectivistcultures,peopledevelopaself-conceptintermsofone’sconnectionsorrelationshipswithothers.Groupmembership,likebeingamemberofagendergroup,influenceshowoneseesone’sself.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第5頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第6頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhichaspectoftheselfhasinfluencedependsonContextanditsfeaturesthatmakeanaspectoftheselfdistinctiveImportanceoftheaspecttotheselfReferencesotherpeoplemakeaboutone’sselfCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第7頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhoIAmDependsonOthers’Treatment

Howpeoplearetreatedbyothersandhowtheybelievetheywillbetreatedinthefutureaffectshowtheythinkaboutthemselves.Peoplemaytrytohideanaspectoftheselfthattheythinkwillresultinrejectionfromothers.Or,theymaychoosetoemphasizethisfeature.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第8頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfSelf-Awareness:TerrorManagementSubjectiveSelf-Awareness—thoughttobethefirstleveloftheselftoemergeandistherecognitionthattheselfisseparatefromotherobjectsinone’sphysicalenvironmentObjectiveSelf-Awareness—organism’scapacitytobetheobjectofitsownattentionCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第9頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfSymbolicSelf-Awareness—uniquelyhumancapacitytoformanabstractrepresentationoftheselfthroughlanguageandisconnectedwithknowingthatdeathisinevitableTerrorManagementTheory—humansconfrontexistentialterrorduetotheirawarenessoftheinevitabilityoftheirowndeathPeopleattempttodealwiththisthreattotheselfwhentheirownmortalityissalientSelf-esteemcanactasabufferagainsttheanxietythatisaresultoftheawarenessoftheirowninevitabledeath.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第10頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第11頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfPossibleSelves:TheSelfOverTimePossibleSelf—imageofhowtheselfmightbeinthefutureCouldbeavoidedordesiredCanmotivatepeopletochangebehaviorAwarenessthatoneisfailingtoliveuptoone’sstandardscanresultindistractionasawaytoreduceuncomfortableself-awarenessPeoplemaybeoverlyoptimisticabouttheirabilitytobecometheselfthattheydesire.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第12頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfSuccessfulchangeismorelikelywhenfeelingsofself-efficacy,believingthatonecanachieveagoal,

arepresent.Otherchangestotheselfoccurduetochangesinsituationalfactors.Forexample,age,relocation,newjob,andmajorlifeeventsCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第13頁(yè)ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhatareyourthoughts?Whatarefactorsthatinfluencehowpeoplethinkaboutthemselves?Whatarethebenefitsofincreasedself-awareness?Whatarethecostsofbecomingmoreself-aware?Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第14頁(yè)Self-EsteemMeasurementofSelf-EsteemSelf-Esteem—degreetowhichtheselfisperceivedpositivelyornegatively;one’soverallattitudetowardtheselfSelf-esteemcanchangereadilyinresponsetosocialsituations.Iteasilycanbeenhancedordecreasedinlaboratorysettings.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第15頁(yè)Self-EsteemRosenberg’s(1965)scaleisthemostcommonmethodtomeasureself-esteem.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第16頁(yè)Self-EsteemUnconsciousmeasurementproceduresalsoareusedtomeasureself-esteem.Self-ReferenceEffect—peopleseemtoorientthemselvestowardstimulithatareassociatedwiththeselfandshowpreferencesforobjectsownedbyandreflectiveoftheselfSuggeststhatstrategiestoimproveself-esteemmaybemoresuccessfulifimplementedbelowconsciousawarenessCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第17頁(yè)Self-EsteemSelf-ServingBiasesAboveAverageEffect—tendencyforpeopletoratethemselvesasabovetheaverageonmostpositivesocialattributesPeopledonottendtotakeresponsibilityfornegativeoutcomes,butdosoforpositiveoutcomes.Peoplemaydothisforbothpersonalandgroupoutcomes.CultureaffectslikelihoodthatpeoplewillengageinthisprocessHowever,whenpeopleattributenegativeoutcomestointernalfactorstheyreceivemorepositiveevaluationsfromothersthandopeoplewhoblameexternalcircumstances.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第18頁(yè)Self-EsteemIsHighSelf-EsteemAlwaysPositive?Ithasfoundtoberelatedtobullying,narcissism,andinterpersonalaggression.Menwithhighself-esteemratherthanlowself-esteemaremorelikelytocommitactsofviolencetowardthosewhocontesttheirpositiveself-view.

Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第19頁(yè)Self-EsteemDoGenderDifferencesinSelf-EsteemExist?Womenwhoaredevalued(facegenderdiscrimination)andareawareofthisinequalityhavelowerself-esteemcomparedtoothers.Men’sself-esteemtendstobehigherthanwomen’sself-esteem.Thesedifferencesarelessintheprofessionalclassthaninmiddle-lowerincomeclasses.StrongestgenderdifferencehasbeenobservedamongwhiteNorthAmericansNoreliabledifferencewasfoundamongminorityAmericansCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第20頁(yè)Self-EsteemWhatareyourthoughts?Whataresuccessfulstrategiesthatpeopleusetomaintaintheiroverallself-esteem?Whyaremembersofhighstatusgroupsmorelikelytocomplainaboutunfairoutcomes?Whyishighself-esteemassociatedwithviolenceinmen?Whatarereasonswhygenderdifferencesinself-esteemarehigherinwhiteNorthAmericanscomparedtominorityAmericans?Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第21頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSocialComparisonTheory—Festinger(1954)suggestedthatpeoplecomparethemselvestootherswhenthereisnoobjectiveyardsticktoevaluatetheselfagainstothers’performanceDownwardSocialComparison—comparingoneselftootherswhodolesswellthantheselfUpwardSocialComparison—comparingoneselftootherswhodobetterthantheselfMethodofcomparisonaffectshowpeoplethinkandfeelaboutthemselvesCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第22頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfMethodofcomparisondependsonpeople’smotivesforcomparison:tofeelgoodortobeaccurateTobeaccurate,itmaybebesttocompareone’sperformancewithsomeonewhoissimilaronvariousdimensions(e.g.,gender,ethnicity,orproficiencyinaspecificdomain).Also,comparisontosimilarothers(thoseinone’sin-group)mayresultinamorepositiveresultCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第23頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfContextswithinwhichcomparisonsoccurhavedifferentconsequencesSelf-EvaluationMaintenanceModel—suggeststhattomaintainapositiveviewofthepersonalselfpeopledistancethemselvesfromotherswhoperformbetterthantheydoonvalueddimensions,butmoveclosertootherswhoperformworsethantheydoSocialIdentityTheory—suggeststhattomaintainapositiveviewoftheirgroupidentitypeoplewillmoveclosertopositiveotherswithwhomtheyshareanidentity,butdistancefrom(orderogate)thosewhoperformpoorlyorsomehowmakesocialidentitynegative(black-sheepeffect)Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第24頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第25頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSelf-PresentationandSelf-RegulationIngratiation—whenpeopletrytomakeotherslikethembyconveyingthattheylikethemAnd,peoplecanattempttopresentthemselvestoothersaspossessingpositiveattributesThistendencyisaffectedbyculturalnorms.AmericanstudentsaremorelikelytodescribethemselvesintermsoftheirstrengthsthanareJapanesestudentswhotendtobemoreself-critical.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第26頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSelf-Monitoring—referstohowmotivatedandablepeoplearetomonitortheirbehaviorinresponsetoothers’expectanciesHighself-monitorsareconcernedwiththereactionsofothersandareverygoodatmonitoringtheirbehaviorandadjustingtheiractionsinfrontofotherpeople.UsethirdpersonpronounsthatshowoutwardfocusonothersTendtohavehigherself-esteemduetosocialapprovalLowself-monitorsarenotasadeptatthisandprefertoactconsistentlywiththeirpersonalviews.UsefirstpersonpronounsthatshowafocusontheselfLoseself-esteemwhentheyviolateownpersonalstandardsCopyright2023,AllynandBacon*第27頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfAnothermethodtoknowtheself,whichisassumedtobeuseful,isintrospection—theprocessofprivatelythinkingabout“whooneis.”However,lookinginwardmaynotbethebestwaytogainself-knowledge.

Peopleoftendonothaveconsciousawarenessofthereasonsfortheiractions.Analyzingreasonsforlikingorchoosingsomethingcanresultinattitudechangethatmisleadspeoplewhenmakinganotherchoice.Peoplearenotverygoodatpredictingtheirfuturefeelings.Theusefulnessofintrospectiondependsonwhichaspectsoftheselfareanalyzed.Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第28頁(yè)SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfWhatareyourthoughts?Whydopeoplemakedownwardsocialcomparisons?Ifsomeoneclosetoyouperformsbetterthanyoudoonataskthatisimportanttoyou,whatmayhappenaccordingtotheself-evaluationmaintenancemodel?Whoislikelytostayinrelationshipslonger,alowself-monitororahighself-monitor?Why?Copyright2023,AllynandBacon*第29頁(yè)TheSelfasTargetofPrejudiceEmotionalConsequencesIthasbeenproposedthatattributingnegativeoutcomestoprejudicemaybeaway