Answerthequestions:1.Whydoweneedtolearnrhetoric?2.WhatdoyouknowabouttheoriginofEnglishrhetoric?3.Whatisrhetoric?4.WhatdoyourknowaboutSophists?SocratesSocrates(469--399BC),philosopherMostofourknowledgeofhimcomesfromtheworksofPlato柏拉圖有一天問老師蘇格拉底什么是愛情。

蘇格拉底叫他到麥田走一次，要不回頭地走，在途中要摘一顆最好的麥穗，但只可以摘一次。柏拉圖充滿信心地去了。誰知過了半天他仍沒有回來，最后，他垂頭喪氣地出現(xiàn)在老師跟前，訴說空手而回的原因：“很難的看見一棵看似不錯(cuò)的，卻不知是不是最好，不得已，因?yàn)橹豢梢哉淮?，只好放棄，再看看有沒有更好的，到發(fā)現(xiàn)已經(jīng)走到盡頭時(shí)，才發(fā)覺手上一棵麥穗也沒有。”這時(shí)，蘇格拉底告訴他：“那就是愛情，愛情是一種理想，而且很容易錯(cuò)過?！盪niquemethodofphilosophicalinquiry—questioningpeopleonthepositionstheyassertedandworkingthemthroughquestions,provingthattheiroriginalassertionwaswrong.Socrates’philosophicalideas:(1)Dowhatonethinksisrighteveninthefaceofuniversalopposition;(2)Pursueknowledgeevenwhenopposed.“Rhetoric(formandeloquence)wasimpressivebutdidnottellpeoplemuch.”Whatisimportantisnottheformoflanguage,nottheskillofusinglanguage,butthethought,truth,factandwisdominit.Contribution:TheimportanceofjusticeandtruthIsocratesIsocrates(436-338B.C.)founderofthefirstrhetoricalschoolinhistory.Isocrates’philosophicalidea:Realityisimmediatehumanexperience:“Whatyouseeiswhatyouget.”Knowledgeistentative.Wecan’tknowanythingforsure.“Agoodopinionisonethathelpsexplainlifeinawaythathelpspeoplegetalongintheworld.”abouteducation:Educationisthesavioroftheworld.Theteachershouldexplainprinciplesandprovideexamplesasmodels;Theteachershouldguidehisstudentstotheacquisitionofpracticalwisdom.Contribution:Histrainedalargeamountofpoliticalfigures,andstatesmen,promotedthepracticaluseofrhetoricalarts.PlatoPlato(427?-347?B.C.)studyafterSocrates,philosopher柏拉圖（約前427年－前347年），古希臘偉大的哲學(xué)家，也是全部西方哲學(xué)乃至整個(gè)西方文化最偉大的哲學(xué)家和思想家之一，他和老師蘇格拉底，學(xué)生亞里士多德并稱為古希臘三大哲學(xué)家。另有其他概念包括：柏拉圖主義、柏拉圖式愛情、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)圖表等含義Rhetoricwastheexpressionoftruth;itwastheartofrationaldiscourseratherthantheartofeloquentexpression.Clarity,consistencyandnaturalnessweretheonlyfeaturesnecessaryfortheeffectivepresentationofideas.Aristotle亞里士多德(384322BC)

studiedunderPlato,Greekphilosopher世界古代史上最偉大的哲學(xué)家、科學(xué)家和教育家之一柏拉圖的學(xué)生，馬其頓國王亞歷山大大帝的老師。馬克思曾稱亞里士多德是古希臘哲學(xué)家中最博學(xué)的人物，恩格斯稱他是古代的黑格爾。亞里士多德一生勤奮治學(xué)，從事的學(xué)術(shù)研究涉及到邏輯學(xué)、修辭學(xué)、物理學(xué)、生物學(xué)、教育學(xué)、心理學(xué)、政治學(xué)、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)、美學(xué)、博物學(xué)等，寫下了大量的著作，他的著作是古代的百科全書，據(jù)說有四百到一千部，主要有《工具論》、《形而上學(xué)》、《物理學(xué)》、《倫理學(xué)》、《政治學(xué)》、《詩學(xué)》等。他的思想對(duì)人類產(chǎn)生了深遠(yuǎn)的影響。他創(chuàng)立了形式邏輯學(xué)，豐富和發(fā)展了哲學(xué)的各個(gè)分支學(xué)科，對(duì)科學(xué)等作出了巨大的貢獻(xiàn)。最早論證地球是球形的人?！癐lovemyteacher,butIlovetruthmore.”“Itisnotsufficienttoknowwhatoneoughttosay,butonemustalsoknowhowtosayit.”Rhetoric—atool,likeaknife,morallyneutralandcapableofbeingusedforgoodorevil.Rhetoricisgoal-orientedthinkingaboutwhatwillwork.Itrequiresskillatbothfindingmaterialsandselectingthosethataremostlikelytosucceed.RhetoricandPoetics:cornerstonesofWesternrhetoric.ThebookRhetoricfallsinthreepartstreatingrespectively(1)thenatureofrhetoric,(2)invention,and(3)arrangementandstyle.twocategoriesofargumentsbasedonthekindsofproof:artistic

andinartistic.Inartisticproofsexternalevidencesuchaswitnesses,contracts,evidencebasedontorture.Artisticproofsthreemeansofpersuasion:logospathosethosLogos—logicalreasoningEffectivelogicalreasoningcomesfromsoundlogicalthinkingwhichisexpressedinrelevantmaterial,properorganization,coherentsentences,andwords.Deduction演繹法Induction歸納法Deductivewayofarguingistermedasenthymeme三段論省略式.“Enthymemeistheveryheartandsoulofrhetoric.”Enthymemeleavesspaceforimagination;thereforeitismoreeffective.“Heisonlyhumanandthereforeliabletomakemistakes.”Premise:“Allmenmakemistakes.”“Allhumanmakemistakesandheisonlyacommonman.”Conclusion:“Heisliabletomakemistakes.”Pathos--emotionalappealTheeffectsofemotionalappealincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pity,jealousy,etc.Emotionalappealdependsontheskillfulandwittyhandlingoflanguage.Ethos--ethicalappealEthosincludesone’spersonalstanding,academicauthority,andmoralqualitiesusedtoguaranteeorevenraisehisorhercredibilityandacceptabilityinthemindoftheaudience.Storyof“Thewolfiscoming!”Donotoveruse:logos—convincingbutboringanddry;pathos—funnyandmovingbutpointless;ethos—wit-aboundingbutineffectiveOnlythroughtheinterdependenceofalltheseappealscanaspeechbeeffective.Aristotleadvocatesaplainornaturalstylethatexhibitsthevirtuesofclarity,dignity,proprietyandcorrectness.Hisstylecontrastswithpompousstylesthatprecededandfollowedhim.FounderofWesternrhetoric2.1.4Romanrhetoricians

andtheirtheoryMarcusTulliusCicero(106--43B.C.)西塞羅Romanstatesman,orator,andwriterCicero’sinfluencehadspecialsignificanceduringtheRenaissance,withitsemphasisonthehumanistictrainingofclergyandstatesmen.atleastsevenrhetoricaltreatises,suggestedthreelevelsofstyle:Highstyle:

tomovetheaudience;Middlestyle:

to

delight/persuadetheaudience;Lowstyle:toteachtheaudienceQuintilian(c.35—c.95AD)昆體良著名律師、教育家和皇室委任的第一個(gè)修辭學(xué)教授，也是公元1世紀(jì)羅馬最有成就的教育家。

borninSpain，aprominentteacherofrhetoricinRome.BestknownforhisInstitutioOratoria(EducationofanOrator)《演說家的教育》in12books,acomprehensivetreatmentoftheartofrhetoricandthetrainingofanoratorQuintilian’sstyleisamongthemostbeautifulinhisperiod.

CiceroandQuintilian’sJointcontribution:TheoryofFiveArts（五藝說）Inventiondiscoveryofvalidorseeminglyvalidarguments:who,what,when,where,howandwhy.Arrangementhowtoorganizetheproofseffectively.Styleeffectivesentences,clarity,forceandbeautyandusingfiguresofspeech.Memoryartofcommittingthespeechtomemorybymnemonicdevices.Deliveryartofspeaking:speaker’spose,tone,gesture,facialexpression,etc.2.2RhetoricintheMiddleAgesLifewashard.Nobodyexpectedconditionstoimprove.StrongbeliefinChristianity.TomoveacongregationtoacceptChristianity,theclergyornamentedsermonsandletterswith“figures”.Twoprominentdevelopments:1.Rhetoricbecamebothapracticalartandanacademicsubject.2.Stylebegantoassumegreaterimportance,togetherwithdeliverydominatingtheotherthreearts.St.Augustine(35