一、19887996年碩士研究生入學(xué)考試英譯漢試題

1.1988年試題

SeatedbehindthefrontdeskataNewYorkfirm,thereceptionistwasefficient,stylishlydressed,thefirm'snewest

employeehadapleasanttelephonevoiceandanaturalcharmthatputclientsatease.Thecompanywaspleased:Cl

early,thiswasapersonwhotookconsiderableprideinpersonalappearance.DavidKing,thereceptionist,isunusu

al,butbynomeansunique.(1)Justasalltruckdriversandconstructionworkersarenolongernecessarilymen,all

secretariesandreceptionistsarenolongerautomaticallywomen.Thenumberofmeninwomen-dominatedfieldsi

sstillsmallandtheyhaven'tattractedtheattentionthathasoftenfollowedwomenadvancingintomale-dominated

fields,butmenaremovingintomoreandmorejobsthathavetraditionallybeenheldbywomen.

Strictlyspeaking,thephenomenonisnotnew.Forthepastfewdecades,menhavebeenquietlyenteringfieldssue

hasnursing,socialworksandelementaryeducation.Buttodaynojobsseemsoff-limits.Menservecoffeeinoffic

esandmealsonairplanes.(2)Thesechangesarehelpingtoinfluencesomeofthelongstandingtraditionsaboutth

etypesofworkmenandwomencando-buttheyalsoproducesomeundeniableproblemsforthemenwhoareen

teringthosefieldsformerlydominatedbywomen.

Whatkindsofmenventureintotheseso-calledwomen'sfields?Allkinds.Idon'tknowofanydefineanswersI'db

ecomfortablewith,

“explainsJosephPieck,Ph.D.oftheWellesleyCollegeCenterforResearchonwomen.SamoOrniont,forexa

mple,athirty-year-oldnurseatBostonhospital,wenlintonursingbecausethearmyhadtrainedhimasamedical

worker.(3)“Ifoundthatworkveryinteresting“herecalled,

andwhenIgotoutoftheserviceitjustseemednaturalformetogointosomethingmedical.Iwasn'treallyinteres

tedinbecomingadoctor.”

Thirty-five-year-oldDavidking,anout-of-workactor,foundajobasareceptionistbecausehewashavingtrouble

landingrolesinBroadwayplaysandheneededtopaytherent.

(4)Inotherwords,menenter“female

“jobsoutofthesameconsideractionforpersonalinterestandeconomicnecessitythatmotivatesanyonelooking

forwork.Butsimilaritiesoftenendthere.Meninfemale-dominatedjobsareconspicuous.Asagroup,theirwork

historiesdifferinmostrespectsfromthoseoftheirfemalecolleagues,andtheyarefrequentlytreateddifferentlyb

ythepeoplewithwhomtheyareinprofessionalcontact.

Thequestionnaturallyarises;Whyaretherestillapproximatelyninety-ninefemalesecretariesforeveryonemale

?Thereisalsoamoreandmoreseriousissue.Mostmendon'twanttobereceptionists,nurses,secretaries,orsewi

ngworkers.Putsimply,thesearenotgenerallyconsideredverymasculinejobs.Tochoosesuchalineofworkist

oinviteridicule.

Therewaskiddinginthebeginning,“recallsOrmont."KidscomingfromschoolaskwhatIam,andwhenIsa

y'Anurse',theylaughatme.Ijustsmileandsay,'Youknow,therefemaledoctors,too

Still,thereareencouragingsigns.Yearsago,malegradeschoolteacherswereasrareasmalenurses.Todaymoret

hanoneelementaryschoolteacherinsixismale.

(5)Canweanticipateadaywhensecretarieswillbeanevenmixofmenandwomen-orwhenthementionofama

lenursewillnolongerraiseeyebrows?Il'sprobablycoming-butnotverysoon.

(1)正像卡車司機和建筑工人再沒有必要都是男的?樣，秘書和接待員再也不一定都是女的。

(2)這些變化正影響著長期存在的傳統(tǒng)觀念中關(guān)于男女可以干哪幾類工作的看法，但這對「進入原先以婦女

為主的那些領(lǐng)域的男人來說，無疑也帶來了一些問題?

(3)他回憶說：“我覺得那種工作十分有趣，當(dāng)我退役時，對我來說，去干某種醫(yī)務(wù)工作，似乎是極其自然

的”

(4)換句話說，男人干起了“女人干”的工作，其動機是同任何找工作干的人一樣，既出于個人的興趣，也

出于經(jīng)濟上需要的考慮。

(5)我們能否預(yù)見這一天：那時秘書的男女各占一半或有人提到某個男人當(dāng)護士時，人們不會感到吃驚。

2.1989年試題

WhenJaneMathesenstartedworkatAdvancedElectronicsInc.12yearsago,(1)Shelabouredoveramicroscope,

hand-weldingtinyelectroniccomputersandturnedout18perhour.Nowsheturntendsthecomputerizedmachiner

ythatturnsouthighcapacitymemorychipsatrateof26(X)perhour.Productionisup,profitsareup,herincomei

supandMrs.Mathesensaystheworkisforlessstrainonhereyes.

ButthemostsignificanteffectofchangesAEIwasfeltbytheworkerswhoarenolongerthere.Beforethecomput

erizedequipmentwasintroduced,therewere940workersattheplant.Nowtherewere121.Aplantfollow-upsurv

eyshowedthatoneyearafterthelayoffsonly38%ofthereleasedworkersfoundnewemploymentatthesameor

betterwages.Nearlyhalffinallysettledforlowerpayandmorethan13%arestilloutofwork.TheAELexamplei

sonlyoneofhundredsaroundthecountrywhichforgeintelligentlyaheadintothelatesttechnology,butleavethe

majorityoftheirworkersbehind.

(2)Itsbeginningobscuredbyunemploymentcausedbytheworldeconomicslow-down,thenewtechnologicalune

mploymentmayemergeasthegreatsocio-economicchallengeoftheendofthe20thcentury.Onecorporationeco

nomistsaysthegrowthof“machinejobreplacement”hasbeenwithussincethebeginningoftheindustrialrev

olution,butneveratpaceitisnow.Thehumancostswillbeastonishing.(3)“It'shumiliatingtobedoneoutofyo

urjobbyamachineandthereisnowaytofightback,butitistheefforttofindanewjobthatreallyhurts."Some

workers,likeJaneMathesen,areretrainedtohandlethenewequipment,butoftenawholenewsetofskillsisrequ

iredandthatmeansanew,andinvariablysmaller,setofworkers.Theoldworkers,trappedbytheirlimitedskills,

oftenneverregaintheiroldstatusandemployment.Manydriftintomarginalareas.Theyfeelnoprideintheirnew

work.Theygetbadlypaidforitandtheyfeelmiserable,butstilltheyareluckierthanthosewhoneverfindit.

Thesocialcostsgofarbeyondthewelfareandunemploymentpaymentsmakebythegovernment.Unemployment

increaseschancesofdivorce,childabuse,andalcoholism,anewfederalshows.Someexpertssaytheproblemiso

nlytemporary(thatnewtechnologywilleventuallycreateasmanynewjobsasitdestroys.(4)ButfuturologistHy

menSeymoursaystheastonishingefficiencyofthenewtechnologymeanstherewillbeasimpleanddirectnetred

uctionintheamountoflabourthatneedstobedone."Weshouldtreatthisasanopportunitytogivepeoplemore

leisure.Itmaynotbeeasy,butsocietywillhavetoreachanewunanimityonthedivisionanddistributionoflabou

r.”Seymoursays.Hepredictsmostpeoplewillworkonlysixhourdaysandfour-dayweeksbytheendofthecen

tury.Buttheconcernoftheunemployedisfornow.(5)Federallyfundedtrainingandfreeback-to-schoolprogram

sforlaid-offworkersareunderway,butfewexpertsbelievetheywillbeabletokeepupwiththepaceofthenewt

echnology.Forthenextfewyears,forasubstantialportionoftheworkforce,timesaregoingtobeverytoughind

eed.

(1)她吃力地伏在顯微鏡上干活，用手工焊制小型電子計算機，每小時能焊好18個。

(2)盡管新技術(shù)引起的失'業(yè)的初兆被世界的經(jīng)濟衰退所造成的失業(yè)現(xiàn)象所掩蓋，但是新技術(shù)引起的失業(yè)現(xiàn)象

可構(gòu)成20世紀(jì)末的巨大的社會-經(jīng)濟難題。

(3)被一臺機器奪走你的工作是很傷自尊心的，可又無法抗衡，但真正令人傷心的是要費很大的勁才能找到

新的工作。

(4)未來學(xué)家海曼?西摩說，新技術(shù)具有的驚人效率意味著所需要的勞動力將出現(xiàn)一個絕對的和直接的凈減

數(shù)。

(5)為失'業(yè)工人提供的由聯(lián)邦政府資助的培訓(xùn)計劃和免費重返學(xué)校學(xué)習(xí)的計劃目前都在實施中，但專家中幾

乎沒人認(rèn)為這些計劃能跟得上新技術(shù)的發(fā)展步伐。

3.1990年試題

Peoplehavewonderedforalongtimehowtheirpersonalitiesandbehaviorsareformed.Itisnoteasytoexplainw

hyonepersonisintelligentandanotherisnot,orwhyoneiscooperativeandanotheriscompetitive.

Socialscientistsare,ofcourse,extremelyinterestedinthesetypesofquestions.(1)Theywanttoexplainwhywep

ossesscertaincharacteristicsandexhibitcertainbehavior.

Therearenoclearanswersyet,buttwodifferentschoolsofthoughtonthematterhavedeveloped.Asonemightex

pect,thetwoapproachesareverydifferentfromeachother.Thecontroversyisoftenconvenientlyreferredtoas”

naturevs.nurture.M

(2)Thosewhosupportthe“nature”sideoftheconflictbelievethatourpersonalitiesandbehaviorarelargelyde

terminedbybiologicalfactors.(3)Thatourenvironmenthaslittle,ifanything,todowithourabilities,characleristi

csandbehavioriscentraltothistheory.Takentoanextreme,thistheorymaintainsthatourbehaviorispredetermi

nedtosuchagreatdegreethatwearealmostcompletelygovernedbyourinstincts.

Thosewhosupportthe“nurture“theory,thatis,theyadvocateeducation,areoftencalledbehaviorists.Theyclai

mthatourenvironmentismoreimportantthanourbiologicallybasedinstinctsindetermininghowwewillact.Ab

ehaviorists,B.F.Skinner,seeshumansasbeingswhosebehaviorisaalmostcompletelyshapedbytheirsurroundin

gs.Thebehavioristsmaintainthat,likemachines,humansrespondtoenvironmentalstimuliasthebasisoftheirbe

havior.

Letusexaminethedifferentexplanationaboutonehumancharacteristic,intelligence,offeredbythetwotheories.

Supportersofthe“nature“theoryinsistthatwearebornwithacertaincapacityforlearningthatisbiologically

determined.Needlesstosay,theydon'tbelievethatfactorsintheenvironmenthavemuchinfluenceonwhatisbasi

callyapredeterminedcharacteristic.Ontheotherhand,behavioristsarguethatourintelligencelevelsareproducto

fourexperiences.(4)Behavioristsuggestthatthechildwhoisraisedtoanenvironmentwheretherearemanystim

uliwhichdevelophisorhercapacityforappropriateresponseswillexperiencegreaterintellectualdevelopment.

Thesocialandpoliticalimplicationsofthesetwotheoriesareprofound.IntheUnitedStates,blacksoftenscorebel

owwhitesonstandardizedintelligencetests.Thisleadssome“nature“proponentstoconcludethatblacksarebi

ologicallyinferiortowhites.(5)Behaviorists,incontrast,saythatdifferencesinscoresareduetothefactthatblac

ksareoftendeprivedofmanyoftheeducationalandotherenvironmentaladvantagesthatwhitesenjoy.

⑴他們想要說明，為什么我們有某些性格特征和表現(xiàn)出某些行為。

⑵在這場爭論中，贊成“天性”一方面的那些人認(rèn)為，我們的性格特征和行為模式大多是由生物因素所決

定的。

⑶這種理論的核心是，我們的環(huán)境同我們的才能、性格特征和行為即使有什么聯(lián)系的話，也是微不足道的。

(4)行為主義的看法是，如果一個兒童在有許多刺激的環(huán)境中成長，而這些刺激物能夠發(fā)展其作出適當(dāng)反應(yīng)

的能力，那么這個兒童將會有更高的智力發(fā)展。

(5)相反，行為主義者認(rèn)為，成績的差異是由于黑人往往被剝奪了白人在教育及其他環(huán)境方面所享有的許多

有利條件。

4.1991年試題

Thefactisthattheenergycrisis,whichissuddenlybeenofficiallyannounced,hasbeenwithusforalongtimeno

w,andwillbewithusforanevenlongertime.WhetherAraboilflowsfreelyornot,itiscleartoeveryonethatwor

Idindustrycannotbeallowedtodependonsofragileabase.

(I)Thesupplyofoilcanbeshutoffunexpectedlyatanytime,andinanycase,theoilwellswillallrundryinthirt

yyearsorsoatthepresentrateofuse.

(2)Newsourcesofenergymustbefound,andthiswilltaketime,butitisnotlikelytoresultinanysituationthatw

illrestorethatsenseofcheapandplentifulenergywehavehadinthetimespast.Foranindefiniteperiodfromhere

on,mankindisgoingtoadvancecautiously,andconsideritselfluckythatitcanadvanceatall.

lbmakethissituationworse,thereisasyetnotsignthatanyslowingoftheworld'spopulationisinsight.Althoug

hthebirth-ratehasdroppedinsomenations,includingtheUnitedStates,thepopulationoftheworldseemssureto

passsixbillionandperhapsevensevenbillionasthetwenty-firstcenturyopens.

(3)Thefoodsupplywillnotincreasenearlyenoughtomatchthis,whichmeansthatweareheadingintoacrisisin

thematterofproducingandmarketingfood.

Takingallthisintoaccount,whatmightwereasonablyestimatesupermarketstobelikeintheyear20()1?

Tobeginwith,theworldfoodsupplyisgoingtobecomesteadilytighteroverthepastthirtyyearsevenhereinthe

UnitedStates.By2001,thepopulationoftheUnitedStateswillbeatleasttwohundredfiftymillionandpossiblyt

wohundredseventymillion,andthenationwillfinditdifficulttoexpandfoodproductiontofilltheadditionalmo

uths.(4)Thiswillbeparticularlytruesinceenergypinchwillmakeitdifficulttocombineagricultureinthehigh-e

nergyAmericanfashionthatmakesitpossibletocombinefewfarmerswithhighyields.

Itseemsalmostcertainthatby2001theUnitedStateswillnolongerbeagreatfood-exportingnationandthat,ifn

ecessaryforcesexports,itwillbeatthepriceofbelt-tighteningathome.

Infact,asfooditemswilltendtodeclineinqualityanddecreasesinvariety,thereisverylikelytobeincreasingus

eofflavoringadditives.(5)Untilsuchtimeasmankindhasthesensetoloweritspopulationtothepointwherethe

planetcanprovideacomfortablesupportforall,peoplewillhavetoacceptmoreuunnaturalfood”.

(1)石油供應(yīng)可能隨時被切斷；不管怎樣，以目前這種石油消費速度，只需30年左右，所有的油井都會枯

竭。

(2)必須找到新的能源，這需要時間，而過去我們感到能源價廉而充足的情況將不大可能出現(xiàn)了。

(3)食品供應(yīng)的增長將趕不I:人口的增長，這就意味著，我們在糧食生產(chǎn)和購銷方面正陷入危機。

(4)這種困境將是確定無疑的，因為能源的匱乏使農(nóng)業(yè)無法以高能量消耗這種美國耕作方式繼續(xù)卜.去，而這

種耕作方式使投入極少數(shù)農(nóng)民就可獲得高產(chǎn)成為可能。

(5)除非人類終于意識到要把人口減少到地球能為所有人提供足夠的飲食的程度，否則人們將不得不接受更

多的“人造食品

5.1992年試題

(1)Thereismoreagreementonthekindsofbehaviorreferredtobythetermthanthereisonhowtointerpretorcla

ssifythem.Butitisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideasreadily,makedis

tinctions,reasonlogically,andmakeuseofverbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligence

testisaroughmeasureofachild'scapacityforlearning,particularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinsc

hool.Itdoesnotmeasurecharacter,socialadjustment,physicalendurance,manualskill,orartisticabilities.Itisno

tsupposedto-itwasnotdesignedforsuchpurposes.(2)lbcriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughlycomparabletocrit

icizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity.

Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofanysubjectisessentiallyacomparati

veaffair.

(3)Nowsincetheassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthescalewithwhichwe

arecomparingoursubjectsprovides'valid'or'fair'comparison.Itisherethatsomeofthedifficultieswhichinteres

tusbegin.Anytestperformedinvolvesatleastthreefactors:theintentiontoone'sbest,theknowledgerequiredfor

understandingwhatyouhavetodo,andtheintellectualabilitytoit.(4)Thefirsttwomustbeequalforallwhoare

beingcompared,ifanycomparisonintermsofintelligenceistobemade.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturethes

eassumptioncanbemadefairandreasonable,andthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeenprovedthoroughly.Its

valuelies,ofcourse,initsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Noneisintheleastinterestedinthemarks

alittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecanconcludefromhismarkonthetestthatth

echildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisageattaskswhichwethinkrequire'generalintelligence'.(

5)Onthewholesuchaconclusioncanbedrawnwithacertaindegreeofconfidence,butonlyifthechildcanbeas

sumedtohavehadthesameattitudetowardsthetestastheotherwithwhomheisbeingcompared,andonlyifhe

wasnotpunishedbylackofrelevantinformationwhichhepossessed.

(1)人們對智力那些不同表現(xiàn)的看法比人們對這些表現(xiàn)如何解釋或分類的看法更為一致。

(2)批評智力測驗不測孩子的性格等情況，猶如批評溫度計不測風(fēng)速一樣。

(3)既然對智力的評估是比較而言的，那么我們必須確保，在對我們的對象進行比較時，我們所使用的尺度

能提供“有效的”或“公平的”比較。

(4)如果要在智力方面進行任何比較的話，那么對所有被比較的人來說，前兩個因素必須是相同的。

(5)總的來說，得出這種結(jié)論是有一定程度把握的，但是必須具備兩個條件：能夠假定這個孩子對測試的態(tài)

度和與他相比較的孩子態(tài)度相同；他也沒有因為缺乏其他孩子已掌握的有關(guān)知識而被扣分。

6.1993年試題

(1)Themethodofscientificinvestigationisnothingbuttheexpressionofthenecessarymodeofworkingofthehu

manmind;itissimplythemodebywhichallphenomenaarereasonedaboutandgivenpreciseandexplanations.T

hereisnomoredifference,butthereisjustthesamedifference,betweenthementaloperationsofamanofscience

andthoseofanordinaryperson,asthereisbetweentheoperationsandmethodsofabakerorofabutcherweighin

gouthisgoodsincommonscales,andtheoperationsofachemistinperformingadifficultandcomplexanalysisb

ymeansofhisbalanceandfinelygradedweights.(2)Itisnotthatthescalesintheonecase,andthebalanceinthe

other,differintheprinciplesoftheirconstructionormannerofworkingbutthatthelatterisamuchfinerapparatu

sandofcoursemuchmoreaccurateinitsmeasurementthantheformer.

Youwillunderstandthisbetter,perhaps,ifIgiveyousomefamiliarexamples.(3)Ybuhaveallhearditrepeatedth

atmenofscienceworkbymeansofinductionanddeduction,thatbythehelpoftheseoperations,they,inasortof

sense,managetoextractfromnaturecertainnaturallaws,andthatoutofthese,bysomespecialskillsoftheirown,

theybuilduptheirowntheories.(4)Anditisimaginedbymanythattheoperationsofthecommonmindcanbeb

ynomeanscomparedwiththeseprocesses,andthattheyhavetobeacquiredbyasortofspecialtraining.Tbhear

alltheselargewords,youwouldthinkthatthemindofamanofsciencemustbeconstitutedifferentlyfromthatof

hisfellowmen;butifyouwillnotbefrightenedbytheterms,youwilldiscoverthatyouarequitewrong,andthat

alltheseterribleapparatusarebeingusedbyyourselveseverydayandeveryhourofyourlive.

Thereisawell-knownincidentinoneofMoliere'splays,wheretheauthormakestheheroexpressunboundeddeli

ghtonbeingtoldthathehadbeentalkingprose(散

文)duringthewholeofhislife.Inthesameway,Itrustthatyouwilltakecomfort,andbedelightedwithyoursel

ves,onthediscoverythatyouhavebeenactingontheprinciplesofinductiveanddeductivephilosophyduringthe

sameperiod.(5)Probablythereisnotoneherewhohasnotinthecourseofthedayhadoccasiontosetinmotiona

complextrainofreasoning,oftheverysamekind,thoughdifferingindegree,asthatwhichascientificmangoest

hroughintracingthecausesofnaturalphenomenon.

(1)科學(xué)研究的方法只不過是人類思維活動的必要表達(dá)方式，也就是對一切現(xiàn)象進行思索并給以精確而嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)

的表達(dá)方式。

(2)并不是說面包師或賣肉的人所用的磅秤在構(gòu)造原理或工作方式L和化學(xué)家所用的天平存在差異，而是說

與前者相比較，后者是一種更精密得多的儀器，因而在計量上必然更準(zhǔn)確得多。

(3)我們都多次聽說過，科學(xué)家是用歸納法和演繹法工作的，他們用這些方法，在某種意義上講，力求從自

然界找出某種自然規(guī)律，然后根據(jù)這些規(guī)律，用自己的某種非同一般的本領(lǐng)，建立起他們的理論。

(4)許多人認(rèn)為，普通人的思維活動根木無法和科學(xué)家的思維過程相比，他們并認(rèn)為這些思維過程必須是經(jīng)

過某種專門訓(xùn)練才能掌握。

(5)這里大概不會有人在一整天里沒有機會進行一連串復(fù)雜的思考活動，這些活動與科學(xué)家在探索自然現(xiàn)象

原因時所經(jīng)歷的思考活動，盡管復(fù)雜程度不同，但在類型上是完全一樣的。

7.1994年試題

Accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,technologyisanoverlookedforcesonexpandingthehorizonsofscientif

icknowledge.(1)Sciencemovesforward,theysay,notsomuchthroughtheinsightsofgreatmenofgeniusasbee

auseofmoreordinarythingslikeimprovedtechniquesandtools.(2)Inshort,aleaderifthenewschoolcontends,

uthescientificrevolution,aswcallit,waslargelytheimprovementandinventionanduseofaseriesofinstrumen

tsthatexpandedthereachofscienceininnumerabledirections.

(3)Overtheyears,toolsandtechnologythemselvesasasourceoffundamentalinnovationhavelargelybeenignor

edbyhistoriansandphilosophersofscience.Themodernschoolthathailstechnologyarguesthatsuchmastersas

Galileo,Newton,Maxwell,Einstein,andinventorssuchasEdisonattachedgreatimportanceto,andderivedgreat

benefitfrom,craftinformationandtechnologicaldevicesofdifferentkindsthatwereusableinscientificexperime

nts.

Thecenterpieceoftheargumentofatechnology-yes,genius-noadvocatewasananalysisofGalileo'sroleatthest

artofthescientificrevolution.ThiswisdomofthedaywasderivedfromPtolemy,anastronomerofthesecondcen

tury,whoseelaboratesystemoftheskyputearthatthecenterofallheavenlymotions.(4)Galileo'sgreatestglory

wasthatin1609hewasthefirstpersontoturnthenewlyinventedtelescopeontheheavenstoprovethattheplane

tsrevolvearoundthesunratherthanaroundtheearth.Buttherealheroofthestory,accordingtothenewschoolof

scientists,wasthelongevolutionintheimprovementofmachineryformakingeyeglasses.

Federalpolicyisnecessarilyinvolvedinthetechnologyvs.geniusdispute.(5)WhethertheGovernmentshouldinc

reaseonthefinancingofpurescienceattheexpenseoftechnologyorviceversa(反

之)oftendependsontheissueofwhichisseenasthedrivingforce.

(1)他們(新學(xué)派科學(xué)家)說，科學(xué)的發(fā)展與其說源于天才偉人的真知灼見，不如說源于改進了的技術(shù)和工

具等更為普通的東西。

⑵新學(xué)派的一位領(lǐng)袖堅持說：“簡而言之，我們所稱謂的科學(xué)革命，主要是指一系列器具的改進、發(fā)明和

使用，而這些改進、發(fā)明和使用使科學(xué)家發(fā)展的范圍無所不及」

(3)工具和技術(shù)本身作為根本性創(chuàng)新的源泉多年來在很大程度上被歷史學(xué)家和科學(xué)思想家們忽視了。

(4)伽利略最光輝的業(yè)績在于他在1609年是第一個把新發(fā)明的望遠(yuǎn)鏡對準(zhǔn)了天空的人，以證實行星是圍繞

太陽旋轉(zhuǎn)而不是圍繞地球旋轉(zhuǎn)的。

(5)政府究竟是減少對技術(shù)經(jīng)費的投入來增加對純理論科學(xué)的經(jīng)費投入，還是相反，這往往取決于把問題的

哪一方面看作是驅(qū)動的力量。

8.1995年試題

Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,

orpromotingstudents,employees,andmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazine

s,thedailypress,andeveninCongress.

(1)Thetargetiswrong,fbrinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedor

incompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonabl

eprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdepe

ndspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.

AHinformedpredictionoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:scho

olgrades,researchproductivity,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.(2)Howwellthepredictionswillbevali

datedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedando

ntheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationav

ailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror.

Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquick,objectivemethodofgettingsomeki

ndsofinformationaboutwhatapersonlearned,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindofpersonheis.Theinform

ationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.(3)Whet

hertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,upontheevidencefr

omexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.

(4)Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedand

leasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefined.Properlyused,theyprovideara

pidmeansofgettingcomparableiniormationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpot

entialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognized,buttherearemanythingstheydonotdo.(5)Forexample,theydonotc

ompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonottellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeen

hadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstance.

⑴把標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化測試作為抨擊的Fl標(biāo)是錯誤的，因為在抨擊這類測試時，批評者不考慮其弊病來自于人們對測

試不甚了解或使用不當(dāng)。

⑵這些預(yù)測在多大程度上為后來的表現(xiàn)所證實，這取決于所采用信息的數(shù)量、可靠性和適應(yīng)性，以及解釋

這些信息的技能和才智。

(3)因此，在某一特定的情況下，究竟是采用測試還是采用其他種類的信息，或是兩者同時使用，須憑有關(guān)

相對效度的經(jīng)驗依據(jù)而定，也取決于諸如費用和有無來源等因素。

(4)一般地說，當(dāng)所要測定的特征能精確地界定時，測試最為有效；而當(dāng)所要測定或預(yù)測的東西不能明確地

界定時:測試的效果則最差。

⑸例如，測試并不彌補明顯的社會不公，因此它們不能說明一個物質(zhì)條件差的年輕人，如果在較好的環(huán)境

卜.成長的話，會有多大的才干。

9.1996年試題

Thedifferenceinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.(1)Someofthesecaus

esarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesin

sciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Some,however,arelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthin

whichpreconceptionsoftheformofscientifictheoryoughttotake,bypersonsinauthority,acttoalterthegrowth

patternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable:butitisafrighteningtrend.(2)Thi

strendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificde

mandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcan

bepredicted,however,thatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.It

isthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctional

order.(3)Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediate

goalsbutofpossibleconsequencesinthefuture.

Thiskindofsupport,likeallgovernmentsupport,requiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Dec

isionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhic

hhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupporting”g

ood“asopposedto“bad”science,butavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generally,theideaofgoodsci

encetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.(4)However

,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld'smorefascinatin

ganddelightfulaspects.(5)Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureasth

eyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.

(1)在這些原因中，有些完全是自然而然地來自社會需求，另一些則是由于科學(xué)在一定程度上自我加速而取

得特定進展的必然結(jié)果。

(2)這種趨勢始于第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，當(dāng)時一些國家的政府得出結(jié)論：政府要向科研機構(gòu)提出的具體要求

通常是無法詳盡預(yù)見的。

(3)給某些與當(dāng)前目標(biāo)無關(guān)但將來可能產(chǎn)生影響的科研以支持，看來通常能有效地解決這個問題。

(4)然而，世界就是如此，完美的體系一般而言是無法解決世上某些更引人入勝的課題的。

(5)同過去一樣，將來必然會出現(xiàn)的新的思維方式和新的思維對象，給完美以新的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。

二、英譯漢補充練習(xí)

Passage1

Oneoftheearliestandfastest-growingapplicationsofspacetechnologyisthecommunicationssatellite,whichrel

ayswide-bandradioandtelevisionsignalsbetweenwidelygeographicalpoints.(1)Priortotheadventofthistech

nology,elaborateandcostlychainsofmicrowavetowerswerethesolepracticalmeansforpassingtheline-of-sight

radioandTVsignalsoverthecurvatureoftheearth.Inthisprocess,signalqualityisdegradedateachrelaypoint,

channelcapacityisseverelylimitedandacuteschedulingproblemsareencounteredbecauseitisnotfeasibletorel

aymorethanoneprogram

atatimetodistantpoints.Moreover,thereisnowaytobridgeoceanswithwide-bandsignalsbymeansofmicrow

averelay.(2)DistantpointslikeAlaskaandHawaiicouldnotsharethetelevisionserviceenjoyedonthecontinent

almainlandoftheUnitedStatesaslongasterrestrialmicrowavewasthesole