AnIntroductiontoEuropeanCultureDivisionII:RomanCultureRomanHistory---TheAncientAccordingtolegend,RomewasfoundedonApril21,753BCbytwinbrothersdescendedfromtheTrojanprinceAeneas.RomulusandRemusarethegrandsonsoftheLatinKing,NumitorofAlbaLonga.TheKingwasejectedfromhisthronebyhiscruelbrotherAmuliuswhileNumitor'sdaughter,RheaSilvia,gavebirth.RheaSilviawasaVestalVirginwhowasrapedbyMars,makingthetwinshalf-divine.ThenewkingfearedthatRomulusandRemuswouldtakebackthethrone,sotheyweretobedrowned.Ashe-wolf(orashepherd'swifeinsomeaccounts)savedandraisedthem,andwhentheywereoldenough,theyreturnedthethroneofAlbaLongatoNumitor.MarsAndRheaSilvia-PeterPaulRubens

Thetwinsthenfoundedtheirowncity,butRomuluskilledRemusinaquarreloverwhichoneofthemwastoreignastheKingofRome,thoughsomesourcesstatethequarrelwasaboutwhowasgoingtogivetheirnametothecity.Romulusbecamethesourceofthecity'sname.Asthecitywasbereftofwomen,legendsaysthattheLatinsinvitedtheSabinestoafestivalandstoletheirunmarriedmaidens,leadingtotheintegrationoftheLatinsandtheSabinesRomuluskilledRemusAccordingtolegend,Romewasfoundedin753BCbyRomulusandRemus,whowereraisedbyashe-wolf.

RomanHistory---TheRepublic

TheRomanRepublicwasestablishedaround509BC,accordingtolaterwriterssuchasLivy,whenthelastofthesevenkingsofRome,TarquintheProud,wasdeposed,andasystembasedonannuallyelectedmagistratesandvariousrepresentativeassemblieswasestablished.Aconstitutionsetaseriesofchecksandbalances,andaseparationofpowers.Themostimportantmagistrateswerethetwoconsuls(保民官),whotogetherexercisedexecutiveauthorityintheformofemporium,ormilitarycommand.Theconsulshadtoworkwiththesenate(元老院),whichwasinitiallyanadvisorycounciloftherankingnobility,orpatricians(貴族),butgrewinsizeandpowerovertime.OthermagistraciesintheRepublicincludepraetors(司法官),aediles(市政官),andquaestors(度支官).Themagistracieswereoriginallyrestrictedtopatricians,butwerelateropenedtocommonpeople,orplebeians(平民).

Republicanvotingassembliesincludedthecomitiacenturiata(centuriateassembly)(平民會議),whichvotedonmattersofwarandpeaceandelectedmentothemostimportantoffices,andthecomitiatributa(tribalassembly),whichelectedlessimportantoffices.ThemapofextentoftheRomanEmpireRomanHistory---ImportantDates753B.C.TheCityRomewasbuilt.510B.C.TheRomansexpelledtheEtruscankingfromRomeandfoundedtheRepublic.264B.C.RomanconqueredallItaly.146B.C.RomanconqueredGreece.27B.C.OctaviusbecametheemperorofAugustus.Later,RomanEmpirereacheditsgreatest.260RomanwasdefeatedbyPersians.284RomanEmpirewasdividedintotheEastandtheWest.3rdCTheEmpirebegantodecline.330A.D.TheemperorConstantinemovedtheCapitalRometoByzantiumandrenameditConstantinople(modernIstanbul).392A.D.EmperorTheodosiusmadeChristianitytheofficialreligion.476A.D.TheendofWestRomanEmpire.1453TheendofEastRomanEmpire.RomansandGreeks

Thecommonthings:Inpolitics----Bothpeopleshadtraditionsrootedintheideaofthecitizenassembly,hostiletomonarchyandtoservility.

Inreligions---Theirreligionswerealikeenoughformostoftheirdeitiestobereadilyidentified---GreekZeuswithRomanJupiter,GreekAphroditewithRomanVenus,andsoon---andtheirmythstobefused.

Inlanguages---Theirlanguagesworkedinsimilarways,andwereultimatelyrelated,bothbeingmembersoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.

RomansandGreeks

Thedifference:

TheRomansbuiltupavastempire;theGreeksdidn‘t.ExceptforthebriefmomentofAlexander‘sconquests,whichsoondisintegrated.

RomanLawTherootsofthelegalprinciplesandpracticesoftheancientRomansmaybetracedtothelawofthetwelvetables(from449BC)tothecodificationofEmperorJustinianI(around530AD).RomanlawaspreservedinJustinian'scodescontinuedintotheByzantineEmpire,andformedthebasisofsimilarcodificationsincontinentalWesternEurope.Romanlawcontinued,inabroadersense,tobeappliedthroughoutmostofEuropeuntiltheendofthe17thcentury.

ThemajordivisionsofthelawofancientRome,ascontainedwithintheJustinianandTheodosianlawcodes,consistedofIusCivile,IusGentium,andIusNaturale.TheIusCivile("Citizenlaw")wasthebodyofcommonlawsthatappliedtoRomancitizens.ThePraetoresUrbani(sg.PraetorUrbanus)weretheindividualswhohadjurisdictionovercasesinvolvingcitizens.TheIusGentium("Lawofnations")wasthebodyofcommonlawsthatappliedtoforeigners,andtheirdealingswithRomancitizens.hePraetoresPeregrini(sg.PraetorPeregrinus)weretheindividualswhohadjurisdictionovercasesinvolvingcitizensandforeigners.IusNaturaleencompassednaturallaw,thebodyoflawsthatwereconsideredcommontoallbeing.LatinLiterature

A.Prose

MarcusTulliusCicero

(106—43B.C.)HeplayedanimportantroleintheRomansenateandnotedforhisoratoryandfinewritingstyle.HislegalandpoliticalspeechesaremodelsofLatindiction.Ciceronian—eloquent,oratoricalmannerofwriting

JuliusCaesar

(102/100?–44B.C.)ageneral,dictator,assassinated.Herecordedwhathedidandsawinthevariousmilitarycampaigns.Thesewritings,collectedinhisCommentaries,aremodelsofsuccinctLatin.Heuselanguagewitheconomyandferocity“Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.”B.

Poetry

Lucretius

(93—50B.C.)HewrotethephilosophicalpoemOntheNatureofThings

Virgil

(70—19B.C.)

ThegreatestofLatinpoets,wrotethegreatepic,theAenied

Architecture

TheRomanswereparticularlyrenownedfortheirarchitecture,whichisgroupedwithGreektraditionsinto"Classicalarchitecture".DuringtheRomanRepublic,itremainedstylisticallyalmostidenticaltoGreekarchitecture.AlthoughthereweremanydifferencesfromGreekarchitecture,RomeborrowedheavilyfromGreeceinadheringtostrict,formulaicbuildingdesignsandproportions.Asidefromtwonewordersofcolumns,compositeandTuscan,andfromthedome,whichwasderivedfromtheEtruscanarch,RomehadrelativelyfewarchitecturalinnovationsuntiltheendoftheRepublic.

TheRomansweregreatengineers.Theycoveredtheirworldfromoneendtotheotherwithroads,bridges,aqueducts,theatresandarenas

.

ThePantheon:ThegreatestandthebestpreservedRomantemple,whichwasbuiltin27B.C.andreconstructedinthe2ndcenturyA.DPontduGard:Itisanexceptionallywell-preservedaqueductthatspansawidevalleyinsouthFrance.

TheColosseum:ItisanenormousamphitheatrebuiltintheentreofRomeinimperialtimes.Amasterpieceofengineering,itheldmorethan5000spectators.Itsinterioristwo-thirdofamileround.

LanguageThenativelanguageoftheRomanswasLatin,anItaliclanguagethegrammarofwhichrelieslittleonwordorder,conveyingmeaningthroughasystemofaffixesattachedtowordstems.ItsalphabetwasbasedontheEtruscanalphabet,whichwasinturnbasedontheGreekalphabet.AlthoughsurvivingLatinliteratureconsistsalmostentirelyofClassicalLatin,anartificialandhighlystylizedandpolishedliterarylanguagefromthe1stcenturyBC,theactualspokenlanguageoftheRomanEmpirewasVulgarLatin,whichsignificantlydifferedfromClassicalLatiningrammarandvocabulary,andeventuallyinpronunciation.

WhileLatinremainedthemainwrittenlanguageoftheRomanEmpire,Greekcametobethelanguagespokenbythewell-educatedelite,asmostoftheliteraturestudiedbyRomanswaswritteninGreek.IntheeasternhalfoftheRomanEmpire,whichlaterbecametheByzantineEmpire,LatinwasneverabletoreplaceGreek,andafterthedeathofJustinian,GreekbecametheofficiallanguageoftheByzantinegovernment.TheexpansionoftheRomanEmpirespreadLatinthroughoutEurope,andovertimeVulgarLatinevolvedanddialectizedindifferentlocations,graduallyshiftingintoanumberofdistinctRomancelanguages.

AlphabetsABGDEVZHΘIKLMNΞOP?QRSTYXΦΨEstrucanAlphabetsABGDEVZHILMNP?RSTUFúíOscanAlphabetsABCDEFZHIKLMNOPQRSTVXLatinAlphabets

Sculpture

she-wolf

AstatuewhichillustratesthelegendofthecreationofRomeTodayatthesiteofthecity‘sfounding,therestandsastatueoftheshe-wolf.TheImpactstoWorldCultureTherehasbeeninEuropeandelsewhereanenduringexcitementaboutclassicalGreekculture.RediscoveryofGreekcultureplayedavitalpartintheRenaissanceinItalyandotherEuropeancountries.Somequalitiesstandout:

a.SpiritofInnovation“Theyinventedmathematicsandscienceandphilosophy;theyfirstwrotehistoryasopposedtomereannals;theyspeculatedfreelyaboutthenatureoftheworldandtheendsoflife,withoutbeingboundinthefettersofanyinheritedorthodoxy.”(BertandRussell:HistoryofWesternPhilosophy)

b.SupremeAchievementTheGreeksachievedsupremeachievementsinnearlyallfieldsofhumanendeavor;philosophy,science,epicpoetry,tragedy,comedy,lyricpoetry,historicalwriting,archit