ProfessionalEnglishofNewEnergyVehicles

－－－WangWanjunWangLiliGuoYijunChapter1IntroductiontoNewEnergyVehicles全套課件1.EnvironmentalImpact2.SustainableTransportation3.EVHistory4.

HistoryofHEVs5.HistoryofFuelCellVehiclesCONTENTS1PartEnvironmentalImpact1.1EnvironmentalImpact

Modernsocietyreliesheavilyonfossilfuel-basedtransportationforeconomicandsocialdevelopmentfreely-movinggoodsandpeople.Theissuesrelatedtothistrendbecomeevidentbecausetransportationreliesheavilyonoil.NotonlyaretheoilresourcesonEarthlimited,butalsotheemissionsfromburningoilproductshaveledtoclimatechange,poorurbanairquality,andpoliticalconflict.Thus,globalenergysystemandenvironmentalproblemshaveemerged,whichcanbeattributedtoalargeextentonpersonaltransportation.

Personaltransportationofferspeoplethefreedomtogowhereverandwhenevertheywant.However,thisfreedomofchoicecreatesaconflict,leadingtogrowingconcernsabouttheenvironmentandconcernsaboutthesustainabilityofhumanuseofnaturalresources.Thelargenumberofautomobilesinusearoundtheworldhascausedandcontinuestocauseseriousproblemsforenvironmentandhumanlife.Airpollution,globalwarming,andtherapiddepletionoftheEarth'spetroleumresourcesarenowproblemsofparamountconcern.1.1EnvironmentalImpactNewwordsenvironment

fossil

fuel

conflict

paramountExpressionsnotonly…butalso …不僅…而且oilresources 石油資源burningoilproducts 燃油制品leadto 導(dǎo)致climatechange

氣候改變attributedto 歸咎于naturalresources 自然資源continuesto 持續(xù)humanlife 人類生存airpollution 空氣污染globalwarming

全球變暖petroleumresources 石油資源rapiddepletion 迅速遞減1.1EnvironmentalImpact1.1EnvironmentalImpactNotestothetext★1.Modernsocietyreliesheavilyonfossilfuel-basedtransportationforeconomicandsocialdevelopmentfreelymovinggoodsandpeople.在現(xiàn)代社會，交通運輸便捷地運送貨物和人員，促進了經(jīng)濟和社會的發(fā)展，但它卻極大地依賴于化石燃料?！?.Thelargenumberofautomobilesinusearoundtheworldhascausedandcontinuestocauseseriousproblemsforenvironmentandhumanlife.全世界大量汽車的應(yīng)用，已經(jīng)產(chǎn)生并正在繼續(xù)引發(fā)嚴(yán)重的環(huán)境與人類生存問題。1.1.1AirPollution

Atpresent,allvehiclesrelyonthecombustionofhydrocarbon(HC)fuelstoderivetheenergynecessaryfortheirpropulsion.Combustionisareactionbetweenthefuelandtheairthatreleasesheatandcombustionproducts.Theheatisconvertedtomechanicalpowerbyanengineandthecombustionproductsarereleasedtotheatmosphere.AnHCisachemicalcompoundwithmoleculesmadeupofcarbonandhydrogenatoms.Ideally;thecombustionofanHCyieldsonlycarbondioxideandwater,whichdonotharmtheenvironment.

Actually,thecombustionofHCfuelincombustionenginesisneverideal.Thereareotheremissionsfromconventionalfossilfuel-poweredvehicles,includingcarbonmonoxide(CO)andnitrogenoxides(NOandNO2,orNOX)fromburninggasoline;hydrocarbonsorvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)fromevaporated,unburnedfuel;andsulfuroxideandparticulatematter(soot)fromburningdieselfuel.Theseemissionscauseairpollutionandultimatelyaffecthumanandanimalhealth.Newwordscombustion hydrocarbon(HC)

propulsiongasoline

reaction

atmosphere

moleculExpressionsatpresent 目前relyon

依靠combustionengine 內(nèi)燃機between…and… …與…之間combustionproducts 燃燒生成物convertto 轉(zhuǎn)換為mechanicalpower 機械功率bemadeup 組成carbondioxide 二氧化碳carbonmonoxide 一氧化碳harmtheenvironment 損害環(huán)境1.1.1AirPollution1.1.1AirPollutionNotestothetext★1.Atpresent,allvehiclesrelyonthecombustionofhydrocarbon(HC)fuelstoderivetheenergynecessaryfortheirpropulsion.目前，所有車輛依靠碳氫化合物類燃料的燃燒，以獲得其驅(qū)動力所必需的能量?！?.Theheatisconvertedtomechanicalpowerbyanengineandthecombustionproductsarereleasedtotheatmosphere.熱量經(jīng)發(fā)動機轉(zhuǎn)換為機械功率，而燃燒生成物則排入大氣。1.1.1AirPollutionNotestothetext★3.Thereareotheremissionsfromconventionalfossilfuel-poweredvehicles,includingcarbonmonoxide(CO)andnitrogenoxides(NOandNO2,orNOX)fromburninggasoline;hydrocarbonsorvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)fromevaporated,unburnedfuel;andsulfuroxideandparticulatematter(soot)fromburningdieselfuel.以傳統(tǒng)化石燃料為能量源的車輛還會產(chǎn)生其他的排放物，包括汽油燃燒產(chǎn)生的一氧化碳（CO)和氮氧化物（NO、NO2和NOX)、來自蒸發(fā)和未完全燃燒氣體中的碳氫化合物和揮發(fā)性有機化合物（V0C)、柴油燃燒產(chǎn)生的硫氧化物和顆粒物（炭煙）等。1.1.2GlobalWarming

Globalwarmingisaresultofthe“greenhouseeffect”inducedbythepresenceofcarbondioxideandothergases,suchasmethane,intheatmosphere.ThesegasestraptheSun’sinfraredradiationreflectedbytheground,thusretainingtheenergyintheatmosphereandincreasingthetemperature.AnincreasedEarthtemperatureresultsinmajorecologicaldamagestoitsecosystemsandinmanynaturaldisastersthataffecthumanpopulations.

Consideringtheecologicaldamagesinducedbyglobalwarming,thedisappearanceofsomeendangeredspeciesisaconcernbecausethisdestabilizesthenaturalresourcesthatfeedsomepopulations.Therearealsoconcernsaboutthemigrationofsomespeciesfromwarmseastopreviouslycoldernorthernseas,wheretheycanpotentiallydestroyindigenousspeciesandtheeconomiesthatliveoffthosespecies.ThismaybehappeningintheMediterraneanSea,wherebarracudasfromtheRedSeahavebeenobserved.1.1.2GlobalWarming

Naturaldisasterscommandourattentionmorethanecologicaldisastersbecauseoftheamplitudeofthedamagestheycause.Globalwarmingisbelievedtohaveinducedmeteorologicalphenomenasuchas“ElNi?o,”whichdisturbstheSouthPacificregionandregularlycausestornadoes,inundations,anddryness.Themeltingofthepolaricecaps,anothermajorresultofglobalwarming,raisesthesealevelandcancausethepermanentinundationofcoastalregionsandsometimesofentirecountries.

CarbondioxideistheresultofthecombustionofHCsandcoal.Transportationaccountsforalargeshare(32%from1980to1999)ofcarbondioxideemissions.ThedistributionofcarbondioxideemissionsisshowninFigure1.1.1.1.2GlobalWarming1.1.2GlobalWarmingNewwordsmethane

ecological

ecosystem

disappearancepotentially

indigenous

barracuda

amplitudetornadoes

inundation

dryness

permanentExpressionsglobalwarming 全球變暖greenhouseeffect 溫室效應(yīng)naturaldisasters 自然災(zāi)害ecologicaldamage 生態(tài)破壞polaricecap 極地冰蓋naturalresources 自然資源MediterraneanSea 地中海SouthPacific 南太平洋coastalregions 沿海區(qū)域1.1.2GlobalWarmingNotestothetext★1.Globalwarmingisaresultofthe“greenhouseeffect”inducedbythepresenceofcarbondioxideandothergases,suchasmethane,intheatmosphere.全球變暖是“溫室效應(yīng)”的結(jié)果，而“溫室效應(yīng)”系由二氧化碳和其他氣體（如大氣中的甲烷）所引發(fā)。★2.CarbondioxideistheresultofthecombustionofHCsandcoal.二氧化碳是碳氫化合物和煤燃燒的生成物?！?.Consideringtheecologicaldamagesinducedbyglobalwarming,thedisappearanceofsomeendangeredspeciesisaconcernbecausethisdestabilizesthenaturalresourcesthatfeedsomepopulations.因全球變曖引發(fā)的生態(tài)破壞，某些受損害物種的消失關(guān)系到一些人口的自然資源供應(yīng)的穩(wěn)定性。1.1.3PetroleumResources

Thevastmajorityoffuelsfortransportationareliquidfuelsoriginatingfrompetroleum.Petroleumisafossilfuel,resultingfromthedecompositionoflivingmattersthatwereimprisonedmillionsofyearsago(Ordovician,600–400millionyearsago)ingeologicallystablelayers.Thisprocesstakesmillionsofyearstoaccomplish.ThisiswhatmakestheEarth’sresourcesinfossilfuelsfinite.

Provedreservesare“thosequantitiesthatgeologicalandengineeringinformationindicateswithreasonablecertaintycanberecoveredinthefuturefromknownreservoirsunderexistingeconomicandoperatingconditions.”Therefore,theydonotconstituteanindicatoroftheEarth’stotalreserves.Theprovedreserves,astheyaregivenintheBritishPetroleum2001estimate,aregiveninbilliontonsinTable1.1.TheR/Pratioisthenumberofyearsthattheprovedreserveswouldlastiftheproductionweretocontinueatitscurrentlevel.ThisratioisalsogiveninTable1.1foreachregion.1.1.3PetroleumResourcesTABLE1.1

ProvedPetroleumReservesin20001.1.3PetroleumResources

Theoilextractednowadaysistheeasilyextractableoilthatliesclosetothesurface,inregionswheretheclimatedoesnotposemajorproblems.ItisbelievedthatfarmoreoilliesunderneaththeEarth’scrustinregionssuchasSiberia,ortheAmericanandCanadianArctic.Intheseregions,theclimateandecologicalconcernsaremajorobstaclestoextractingorprospectingforoil.TheestimationofthetotalEarth’sreservesisadifficulttaskforpoliticalandtechnicalreasons.A2000estimationoftheundiscoveredoilresourcesbytheUSGeologicalSurveyisgiveninTable1.2.TABLE1.2U.S.GeologicalSurveyEstimateofUndiscoveredOilin20001.1.3PetroleumResources

AlthoughtheR/Pratiodoesnotincludefuturediscoveries,itissignificant.Indeed,itisbasedonprovedreserves,whichareeasilyaccessibletothisday.Theamountoffutureoildiscoveriesishypothetical,andthenewlydiscoveredoilwillnotbeeasilyaccessible.TheR/Pratioisalsobasedonthehypothesisthattheproductionwillremainconstant.Itisobvious,however,thatconsumption(andthereforeproduction)isincreasingyearlytokeepupwiththegrowthofdevelopedanddevelopingeconomies.Consumptionislikelytoincreaseingiganticproportionswiththerapiddevelopmentofsomelargelypopulatedcountries,particularlyintheAsia-Pacificregion.Figure1.2showsthetrendinoilconsumptionoverthelast20years.Oilconsumptionisgiveninthousandbarrelsperday(onebarrelisabout8metrictons).

1.1.3PetroleumResourcesDespitethedropinoilconsumptionforEasternEuropeandtheformerUSSR,theworldtrendisclearlyincreasing,asshowninFigure1.3.ThefastestgrowingregionisAsiaPacific,wheremostoftheworld’spopulationlives.Anexplosioninoilconsumptionistobeexpected,withaproportionalincreaseinpollutantemissionsandCO2emissions.1.1.3PetroleumResourcesNewwordsgeological

accomplish

constitute

indicatorestimate

extract

prospect

significanthypothetical

accessible

gigantic

particularlyExpressionspetroleumresources 石油資源liquidfuels 液態(tài)燃料originatefrom 源于….millionsofyears 百萬年keepup 保持developedeconomies 發(fā)達國家經(jīng)濟developingeconomies 發(fā)展中國家經(jīng)濟EasternEurope 東歐地區(qū)theAsia-Pacificregion 亞太地區(qū)oilconsumption 油消耗量CO2emissions 二氧化碳排放量Notestothetext★1.thosequantitiesthatgeologicalandengineeringinformationindicateswithreasonablecertaintycanberecoveredinthefuturefromknownreservoirsunderexistingeconomicandoperatingconditions.經(jīng)地質(zhì)和工程信息可靠地預(yù)示的儲藏量，它們是在現(xiàn)階段經(jīng)濟和運行條件下，今后由已知的儲油層可被開采的儲藏量.★2.Consumptionislikelytoincreaseingiganticproportionswiththerapiddevelopmentofsomelargelypopulatedcountries,particularlyintheAsia-Pacificregion.油消耗量隨著某些人口大量聚居國家的迅速發(fā)展很可能呈現(xiàn)巨大的增長額，特別是在亞太地區(qū)。1.1.3PetroleumResources2PartSustainableTransportation

ThecurrentmodelofthepersonaltransportationsystemisnotsustainableinthelongrunbecausetheEarthhaslimitedreservesoffossilfuel,whichprovide97%ofalltransportationenergyneedsatthepresenttime.Tounderstandhowsustainabletransportationcanbeachieved,letuslookatthewaysenergycanbederivedandthewaysvehiclesarepowered.

Theenergyavailabletouscanbedividedintothreecategories:renewableenergy,fossilfuel-basednon-renewableenergy,andnuclearenergy.Renewableenergyincludeshydropower,solar,wind,ocean,geothermal,biomass,andsoon.Non-renewableenergyincludescoal,oil,andnaturalgas.Nuclearenergy,thoughabundant,isnotrenewablesincetherearelimitedresourcesofuraniumandotherradioactiveelementsonEarth.1.2SustainableTransportationInaddition,thereisconcernonnuclearsafety(suchastherecentaccidentinJapanduetoearthquakeandtsunami)andnuclearwasteprocessinginthelongterm.Biomassenergyisrenewablebecauseitcanbederivedfromwood,crops,cellulose,garbage,andlandfill.Electricityandhydrogenaresecondaryformsofenergy.Theycanbegeneratedbyusingavarietyofsourcesoforiginalenergy,includingrenewableandnon-renewableenergy.Gasoline,diesel,andsyngasareenergycarriersderivedfromfossilfuel.

Figure1.4showsthedifferenttypesofsourcesofenergy,energycarriers,andvehicles.Conventionalgasoline/diesel-poweredvehiclesrelyonliquidfuelwhichcanonlybederivedfromfossilfuel.HEVs,thoughmoreefficientandconsuminglessfuelthanconventionalvehicles,stillrelyonfossilfuelastheprimaryenergy.Therefore,bothconventionalcarsandHEVsarenotsustainable.EVsandfuelcellvehiclesrelyonelectricityandhydrogen,respectively.1.2SustainableTransportationBothelectricityandhydrogencanbegeneratedfromrenewableenergysources,thereforetheyaresustainableaslongasonlyrenewableenergysourcesareusedforthepurpose.PHEVs,thoughnottotallysustainable,offertheadvantagesofbothconventionalvehiclesandEVsatthesametime.PHEVscandisplacefossilfuelusagebyusinggridelectricity.Theyarenottheultimatesolutionforsustainabilitybuttheybuildapathwaytofuturesustainability.1.2SustainableTransportation1.2SustainableTransportationNewwordscategory

hydropower

solar

geothermalbiomass

abundant

uranium

cellulosegarbage

syngas

hydrogenExpressionsnuclearenergy 核能renewableenergy 可再生能源naturalgas 天然氣radioactiveelements 放射性元素solar 太陽能wind 風(fēng)能ocean 海洋能coal 煤uranium 鈾fossilfuel-basednon-renewableenergy 基于化石燃料的不可再生能源sustainabletransportation 持續(xù)發(fā)展的交通運輸1.2SustainableTransportationNotestothetext★1.Theenergyavailabletouscanbedividedintothreecategories:renewableenergy,fossilfuel-basednon-renewableenergy,andnuclearenergy.Renewableenergyincludeshydropower,solar,wind,ocean,geothermal,biomass,andsoon.Non-renewableenergyincludescoal,oil,andnaturalgas.Nuclearenergy,thoughabundant,isnotrenewablesincetherearelimitedresourcesofuraniumandotherradioactiveelementsonEarth.我們能夠獲取的能源形式可分為三類：可再生能源、基于化石燃料的不可再生能源以及核能?？稍偕茉窗ㄋ?、太陽能、風(fēng)能、海洋能、地?zé)崮?、生物能等。不可再生能源包括煤、石油和天然氣。核能，雖然很豐富，但也是不可再生的，這是因為地球上的鈾和其他放射性元素也是有限的。1.2SustainableTransportationNotestothetext★2.PHEVs,thoughnottotallysustainable,offertheadvantagesofbothconventionalvehiclesandEVsatthesametime.PHEVscandisplacefossilfuelusagebyusinggridelectricity.PHEV雖然不是可完全持續(xù)發(fā)展的，但是同時具備了傳統(tǒng)汽車和純電動汽車的優(yōu)點。PHEV能夠通過使用電網(wǎng)的電能來代替化石燃料的使用。1.2SustainableTransportation3PartEVHistory

ThehistoryofEVsisinteresting.ItincludestheinsurgenceofEVsfollowingthediscoveryofelectricityandthemeansofelectromechanicalenergyconversionandlaterbeingovertakenbygasoline-poweredvehicles.Motivatedbythegrowingconcernaboutglobalpollutionandthesuccessofelectricmotordriventransportationinvariousareas,theinterestiseverincreasingforroadEVsthatcandelivertheperformanceofICEVcounterparts.1.3EVHistory

Priortothe1830s,themeansoftransportationwasonlythroughsteampower,becausethelawsofelectromagneticinduction,andconsequently,electricmotorsandgenerators,wereyettobediscovered.Faradaydemonstratedtheprincipleoftheelectricmotorasearlyasin1820throughawirerodcarryingelectriccurrentandamagnet,butin1831hediscoveredthelawsofelectromagneticinductionthatenabledthedevelopmentanddemonstrationoftheelectricmotorsandgeneratorsessentialforelectrictransportation.ThehistoryofEVsinthoseearlyyearsuptoitspeakperiodintheearly1900sissummarizedbelow:?Pre-830-Steam-poweredtransportation?1831—Faraday’slaw,andshortlythereafter,inventionofDCmotor?1834—Nonrechargeablebattery-poweredelectriccarusedonashorttrack?1851—Nonrechargeable19mphelectriccar（lmile=1609.344m）?1859—Developmentofleadstoragebattery1.3.1TheEarlyYears?1874—Battery-poweredcarriage?Early1870s-Electricityproducedbydynamo-generators?1885—Gasoline-poweredtricyclecar?1900—4200automobilessold,40%steampowered,38%electricpowered,22%gasolinepowered?1912—34,000EVsregistered;EVsoutnumbergas-poweredvehicles2-to-1?1920s—EVsdisappear,andICEVsbecomepredominant

ThefactorsthatledtothedisappearanceofEVafteritsshortperiodofsuccesswereasfollows:1.Inventionofstartermotorin1911madegasvehicleseasiertostart.2.ImprovementsinmassproductionofHenryT(gas-poweredcar)vehiclessoldfor$260in1925,comparedto$850in1909.EVsweremoreexpensive.3.Ruralareashadlimitedaccesstoelectricitytochargebatteries,whereasgasolinecouldbesoldinthoseareas.1.3.1TheEarlyYearsNewwordsgenerator

summarized

predominantExpressionselectricmotor電動機electromagneticinduction 電磁感應(yīng)topspeed 最高車速gasoline-poweredvehicles 燃油汽車DCmotor 直流電動機dynamo-generators 直流發(fā)電機steampowered 蒸汽驅(qū)動

electricpowered 電驅(qū)動gasolinepowered

燃油驅(qū)動

startermotor 起動機peakperiod 鼎盛時期electrictransportation 電力交通thelawsofelectromagneticinduction 電磁感應(yīng)定律nonrechargeablebattery-poweredelectriccar不可再充電電池的電動汽車1.3.1TheEarlyYearsNotestothetext★1.Priortothe1830s,themeansoftransportationwasonlythroughsteampower,becausethelawsofelectromagneticinduction,andconsequently,electricmotorsandgenerators,wereyettobediscovered.追溯到19世紀(jì)30年代，在電磁感應(yīng)定律、電動機和發(fā)電機發(fā)明之前，交通工具都是靠蒸汽驅(qū)動?！?.Faradaydemonstratedtheprincipleoftheelectricmotorasearlyasin1820throughawirerodcarryingelectriccurrentandamagnet,butin1831hediscoveredthelawsofelectromagneticinductionthatenabledthedevelopmentanddemonstrationoftheelectricmotorsandgeneratorsessentialforelectrictransportation.早在1820年，法拉第使用一個通電的線圈和磁鐵論證了電動機的原理，直到1831年，他發(fā)現(xiàn)了電磁感應(yīng)定律，這項重大發(fā)現(xiàn)促進了電動機和發(fā)電機的發(fā)展，使電力交通的推廣成為可能。1.3.1TheEarlyYears

ThescenarioturnedinfavorofEVsintheearly1970s,asgasolinepricesincreaseddramaticallyduetoanenergycrisis.TheAraboilembargoof1973increaseddemandsforalternateenergysources,whichledtoimmenseinterestinEVs.Itbecamehighlydesirabletobelessdependentonforeignoilasanation.In1975,352electricvansweredeliveredtotheU.S.PostalServicefortesting.In1976,CongressenactedPublicLaw94–413,theElectricandHybridVehicleResearch,DevelopmentandDemonstrationActof1976.ThisactauthorizedafederalprogramtopromoteelectricandhybridvehicletechnologiesandtodemonstratethecommercialfeasibilityofEVs.TheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)standardizedEVperformance,whichissummarizedinTable1.3.1.3.21970s1.3.21970sTABLE1.3EVPerformanceStandardizationof19761.3.21970sThecasestudyofaGMEVofthe1970sisasfollows:Systemandcharacteristics:Motor：separatelyexcitedDC,34hp,2400rev/mBatterypack：Ni-Zn,120V,735lbAuxiliarybattery：Ni-Zn,14VMotordrive：armatureDCchopperusingSCRs;fieldDCchopperusingbipolarjunctiontransistors(BJTs)Topspeed：60mi/hRange：60–80milesAcceleration：0–55mi/hin27sThevehicleutilizedamodifiedChevyChevettechassisandbody.ThisEVwasusedmainlyasatestbedforNi-Znbatteries.Over35,500milesofon-roadtestingprovedthatthisEVwassufficientlyroadworthy.1.3.21970sNewwordsDramatically

embargo

enacted

authorizeddemonstrate

performance

accelerationExpressionsalternateenergysources替代能源PostalService 郵政服務(wù)業(yè)HybridVehicle 混合動力汽車DemonstrationAct 示范條例federalprogram 聯(lián)邦計劃batterypack 電池組separatelyexcitedDC他勵直流電機motordrive 電機驅(qū)動auxiliarybattery 輔助蓄電池

energycrisis 能源危機armatureDCchopper 電樞直流斬波器fieldDCchopper

磁場直流斬波器DepartmentofEnergy(DOE) 美國能源部bipolarjunctiontransistors(BJTs) 雙極結(jié)型晶體管commercialfeasibility 商業(yè)化的可行性1.3.21970sNotestothetext★1.ThescenarioturnedinfavorofEVsintheearly1970s,asgasolinepricesincreaseddramaticallyduetoanenergycrisis.20世紀(jì)70年代初能源危機使汽油的價格顯著上升，電動汽車受到越來越多的青睞?！?.ThisactauthorizedafederalprogramtopromoteelectricandhybridvehicletechnologiesandtodemonstratethecommercialfeasibilityofEVs.這項條例制定了一個聯(lián)邦計劃，用來推進電動汽車及混合動力汽車技術(shù)的發(fā)展和闡述電動汽車商業(yè)化的可行性。1.3.31980sand1990s

Inthe1980sandthe1990s,thereweretremendousdevelopmentsofhigh-power,high-frequencysemiconductorswitches,alongwiththemicroprocessorrevolution,whichledtoimprovedpowerconverterdesigntodrivetheelectricmotorsefficiently.Alsointhisperiod,factorscontributedtothedevelopmentofmagneticbearingsusedinflywheelenergystoragesystems,althoughthesearenotutilizedinmainstreamEVdevelopmentprojects.

Inthelast2decades,legislativemandatespushedthecauseforzero-emissionvehicles.LegislationpassedbytheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoardin1990statedthatby19982%ofvehiclesshouldbezero-emissionvehicles(ZEV)foreachautomotivecompanysellingmorethan35,000vehicles.Thepercentagesweretoincreaseto5%by2001andto10%by2003.1.3.31980sand1990s

ThelegislationprovidedatremendousimpetustodevelopEVsbythemajorautomotivemanufacturers.Thelegislationwasrelaxedsomewhatlaterduetopracticallimitationsandtheinabilityofthemanufacturerstomeetthe1998and2001requirements.Themandatenowstandsthat4%ofallvehiclessoldshouldbeZEVby2003,andanadditional6%ofthesalesmustbemadeupofZEVsandpartialZEVs,whichwouldrequireGMtosellabout14,000EVsinCalifornia.

Motivatedbythepollutionconcernandpotentialenergycrisis,governmentagencies,federallaboratories,andthemajorautomotivemanufacturerslaunchedanumberofinitiativestopushforZEVs.Thepartnershipfornext-generationvehicles(PNGV)issuchaninitiative(establishedin1993),whichisapartnershipoffederallaboratoriesandautomotiveindustriestopromoteanddevelopelectricandhybridelectricvehicles.1.3.31980sand1990s

ThemostrecentinitiativebytheDOEandtheautomotiveindustriesistheFreedomCARinitiative.

ThetrendsinEVdevelopmentsinrecentyearscanbeattributedtothefollowing:?Highlevelofactivityexistsatthemajorautomotivemanufacturers.?Newindependentmanufacturersbringvigor.?Newprototypesareevenbetter.?Highlevelsofactivityoverseasexist.?Therearehighlevelsofhybridvehicleactivity.?AboominindividualICEVtoEVconversionsisongoing.

ThecasestudiesofoneGMEVsofthe1990saregivenbelow:SaturnEVla.CommerciallyavailableelectricvehiclemadebyGMin1995.b.LeasedinCaliforniaandArizonaforatotalcostofabout$30,000.c.Systemandcharacteristics:i.Motor：one,three-phaseinductionmotorii.Batterypack：lead-acidbatteriesiii.Motordrive：DC-to-ACinverterusingIGBTsiv.Topspeed：75mphv.Range：90milesonhighway,70milesincityvi.Acceleration：0to60miin8.5svii.Powerconsumption:30kW?h/100miincity,25kW?h/100mionhighway

ThisvehiclewasusedasatestbedformassproductionofEVs.1.3.31980sand1990s1.3.31980sand1990sNewwordstremendous

converter

mainstream

decade

percentage

additional

initiative

partnership

prototype

individualExpressionshigh-power 大功率

high-frequency

高頻semiconductorswitch

半導(dǎo)體開關(guān)

magneticbearing 磁軸承microprocessorrevolution 微處理器技術(shù)flywheelenergystoragesystems 飛輪儲能系統(tǒng)zero-emissionvehicles 零排放車輛（ZEV）CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard 美國加州空氣資源委員會practicallimitation 實用性的限制governmentagencies 政府機關(guān)federallaboratories 聯(lián)邦實驗室1.3.31980sand1990sExpressionsDOE 美國能源部 ICEV

內(nèi)燃機汽車hybridelectricvehicle混合動力汽車powerconsumption 功率消耗three-phaseinductionmotor 三相感應(yīng)電機batterypack-lead-acid 鉛酸蓄電池IGBTs(insulatedgatebipolartransistors) 絕緣柵雙極型晶體管Notestothetext★1.Themandatenowstandsthat4%ofallvehiclessoldshouldbeZEVby2003.要求到2003年，4%為零排放車輛★2.AboominindividualICEVtoEVconversionsisongoing.私營企業(yè)和小型企業(yè)也開始從生產(chǎn)內(nèi)燃機汽車轉(zhuǎn)變到生產(chǎn)電動汽車。1.3.31980sand1990s1.3.4EVMarket

WenormallydiscusstheuseofEVsforpassengerandpublictransportationbuttendtoforgetabouttheiruseasoff-roadvehiclesinspecialtyapplications,whererangeisnotanissue.EVshavepenetratedthemarketofoff-roadvehiclessuccessfullyovertheyearsforcleanairaswellasforcostadvantages.Examplesofsuchapplicationsareairportvehiclesforpassengerandgroundsupport;recreationalvehiclesasingolfcartsandforthemeparks,plantoperationvehicleslikeforkliftsandloadertrucks;vehiclesfordisabledpersons;utilityvehiclesforgroundtransportationinclosedbutlargecompounds;etc.

1.3.4EVMarket

ThemajorimpedimentsformassacceptanceofEVsbythegeneralpublicarethelimitedEVrangeandthelackofEVinfrastructure.Thesolutionoftherangeproblemmaycomefromextensiveresearchanddevelopmenteffortsinbatteries,fuelcells,andotheralternativeenergystoragedevices.AnalternativeapproachistocreateawarenessamongpeopleontheproblemsofglobalwarmingandtheadvantagesofEVs,whileconsideringthefactthatmostpeopledrivelessthan50milesaday,arequirementthatcanbeeasilymetbytoday’stechnology.TheappropriateinfrastructuremustalsobeinplaceforEVstobecomemorepopular.Theissuesrelatedtoinfrastructureareasfollows:1.3.4EVMarket?Batterychargingfacilities:residentialandpublicchargingfacilitiesandstations?StandardizationofEVplugs,cords,andoutlets,andsafetyissues?Salesanddistribution?Serviceandtechnicalsupport?PartssupplyThecurrentinitialcostofanEVisalsoabigdisadvantagefortheEVmarket.Thereplacementofthebatteries,evenforHEVs,isquiteexpensive,addedtowhichisthelimitedlifeproblemoftheseba