Generaldescriptionsoftherelevantliterature:

AconsiderableamountofliteraturehasbeenpublishedonX.Thesestudies

Thereisalargevolumeofpublishedstudiesdescribingtheroleof

ThefirstseriousdiscussionsandanalysesofXemergedduringthe1970swith

Thegeneralisabilityofmuchpublishedresearchonthisissueisproblematic.

WhatweknowaboutXislargelybaseduponempiricalstudiesthatinvestigatehow

Duringthepast30yearsmuchmoreinformationhasbecomeavailableon

Inrecentyears,therehasbeenanincreasingamountofliteratureon

Alargeandgrowingbodyofliteraturehasinvestigated

Generalreferencetopreviousresearch/scholarlyactivity(usuallymorethanoneauthor)

Manyhistorians

havearguedthat

(eg.Jones,1987;Johnson,1990;Smith,1994)

Numerousstudieshaveattemptedtoexplain(forexample,Smith,1996;Kelly,1998;Johnson,2002)

Recentevidence

suggests

that(Smith,1996;Jones1999;Johnson,2001)

Recently,invitrostudies

haveshown

thatT.thermophylusEFTucan(Pateletal.,1997;Jonesetal.,1998).

SurveyssuchasthatconductedbySmith(1988)

haveshownthat

Severalattempts

havebeenmade

to(Smith,1996;Jones1999;Johnson,2001)

Severalstudies

haverevealed

thatitisnotjustXthatactson(Smith,1996;Jones

SeveralbiographiesofHarris

havebeenpublished.Smithpresentsanaccount,whilstJones

SeveralstudiesinvestigatingX

havebeencarriedout

on

Datafromseveralsources

haveidentified

theincreasedmorbidityandmortalityassociatedwithobesity

Previousstudies

havereported

(Smith,1985;Jones,1987;Johnson,1992).

PreviousresearchfindingsintoX

havebeen

inconsistentandcontradictory

(Smith,1996;Jones1999,

Anumberofstudies

havefound

that(Smith,2003;Jones,2004).

Twentycohortstudyanalyseshaveexaminedtherelationshipbetween

Atleast152case-controlstudiesworldwidehaveexaminedtherelationshipbetween

Otherstudieshaveconsideredtherelationship

TherelationshipbetweenXandY

hasbeenwidelyinvestigated

(Smith,1985;Jones,1987,

ThecausesofXhavebeenwidely

investigated

(Jones,1987;Johnson,1990;Smith,1994).

ThegeologyofX

hasbeenaddressed

inseveralsmall-scaleinvestigationsand

Xs

havebeenidentifiedas

majorcontributingfactorsforthedeclineofmanyspecies(1).

X

hasalsobeenshown

toreversetheanti-inflammatoryeffectsofglucocorticoidsinmurine-inducedarthritis(11).

Ithasbeensuggested

thatlevelsofXareindependentofthesizeoftheY(Smithetal.,1995)

It

has

conclusivelybeenshownthat

XandYincreaseZ(Smithetal.,1999;Jones,2001

It

hasbeendemonstrated

thatahighintakeofXresultsindamageto(Smith,1998;

Referencetocurrentstateofknowledge

Arelationshipexistsbetweenanindividual'sworkingmemoryandtheirabilityto(Jonesetal.,1998).

GMvarietiesofmaizeareabletocross-pollinatewithnon-GMvarieties(Smith,1998;Jones,1999).

Thereisanunambiguousrelationshipbetweenspendingoneducationandeconomicdevelopment(Rao,1998).

XisoneofthemostintensereactionsfollowingCHD(Lane,2003).

MIFhasbeenfoundtoopposetheanti-inflammatoryactionsofXonY(Alourfi,2004).

Referencetosingleinvestigationsinthepast:researcher(s)assentencesubject

Smith(1999)

found

that

aslevelsofliteracyandeducationofthepopulationrise

showed

thatreducingXto190oCdecreased(seefigure2).

demonstrated

thatwhenthemaximumtemperatureisexceeded

Someanalysts(e.g.Carnoy,2002)haveattemptedtodrawfinedistinctionsbetween

Otherauthors(seeHarbison,2003;Kaplan,2004)questiontheusefulnessofsuchanapproach.

Referencetootherwriters'ideas(authorassubject)

Accordingto

Smith(2003),preventativemedicineisfarmorecosteffective,andthereforebetteradaptedtothedevelopingworld.

Smith(2003)

pointsout

argues

maintains

claims

concludes

suggests

that

preventativemedicineisfarmorecosteffective,andthereforebetteradaptedtothedevelopingworld

Smith(2003)

arguesfor

offers

proposes

suggests

anexplanatorytheoryforeachtypeofirrationalbelief.

ThisviewissupportedbyJones(2000)whowrites

SmitharguesthatherdatasupportO'Brien's(1988)viewthat

AsSmithremindsus,

Elsewhere,Smithhasarguedthat

Somewaysofintroducingquotations

InthefinalpartoftheTheses,Marxwrites:"Philosophershavehithertoonlyinterpretedtheworldinvariousways;thepoint"

Sachsconcludes:"Theideaofdevelopmentstandstodaylikearuinintheintellectuallandscape…"(Sachs,1992a:156).

AsSmithargues:"Inthepast,thepurposeofeducationwasto"(Smith,2000:150).

AsCarnoy(2004:215)states:"therearemanygoodreasonstobesceptical".

BeingCritical

Asanacademicwriter,youareexpectedtobecriticalofthesourcesthatyouuse.Thisessentiallymeansquestioningwhatyoureadandnotnecessarilyagreeingwithitjustbecausetheinformationhasbeenpublished.Beingcriticalcanalsomeanlookingforreasonswhyweshouldnotjustacceptsomethingasbeingcorrectortrue.Thiscanrequireyoutoidentifyproblemswithawriter'sargumentsormethods,orperhapstorefertootherpeople'scriticismsofthese.Constructivecriticismgoesbeyondthisbysuggestingwaysinwhichapieceofresearchorwritingcouldbeimproved.

beingagainstisnotenough.Wealsoneedtodevelophabitsofconstructivethinking.EdwarddeBono

Introducingquestions,problemsandlimitations(theory)

Onequestionthatneedstobeasked,however,iswhether

Aseriousweaknesswiththisargument,however,isthat

Oneofthelimitationswiththisexplanationisthatitdoesnotexplainwhy....

OnecriticismofmuchoftheliteratureonXisthat

Thekeyproblemwiththisexplanationisthat

TheexistingaccountsfailtoresolvethecontradictionbetweenXandY.

However,thereisaninconsistencywiththisargument.

Smith'sargumentreliestooheavilyonqualitativeanalysisof

ItseemsthatJones'understandingoftheXframeworkisquestionable.

Smith'sinterpretationoverlooksmuchofthehistoricalresearch

OnemajorcriticismofSmith'sworkisthat

ManywritershavechallengedJones'claimonthegroundsthat

X'sanalysisdoesnottakeaccountofnordoesheexamine

Introducingquestions,problemsandlimitations(method/practice)

AnotherproblemwiththisapproachisthatitfailstotakeXintoaccount.

Perhapsthemostseriousdisadvantageofthismethodisthat

Difficultiesarise,however,whenanattemptismadetoimplementthepolicy.

Nevertheless,thestrategyhasnotescapedcriticismfromgovernments,agenciesandacademics.

Onemajordrawbackofthisapproachisthat

Themainlimitationofbiosyntheticincorporation,however,is

However,thismethodofanalysishasanumberoflimitations.

However,approachesofthiskindcarrywiththemvariouswellknownlimitations.

Allthestudiesreviewedsofar,however,sufferfromthefactthat

However,therearelimitstohowfartheideaof/conceptofXcanbetaken.

However,suchexplanationstendtooverlookthefactthat

However,oneoftheproblemswiththeinstrumenttheresearchersusedtomeasureXwas

However,allthepreviouslymentionedmethodssufferfromsomeserious

limitations

weaknesses

disadvantages

drawbacks.

Identifyingastudy'sweakness

(However,)

themainweaknessofthestudyisthefailuretoaddresshow

thestudyfailstoconsiderthedifferingcategoriesofdamagethat

theresearchdoesnottakeintoaccountpre-existingsuchas

theauthoroffersnoexplanationforthedistinctionbetweenXandY.

SmithmakesnoattempttodifferentiatebetweenvariousdifferenttypesofX.

Jonesfailstofullyacknowledgethesignificanceof

thepaperwouldappeartobeoverambitiousinitsclaims.

theauthoroverlooksthefactthatXcontributestoY.

whatSmithfailstodoistodrawadistinctionbetween

anotherweaknessisthatwearegivennoexplanantionofhow

noattemptwasmadetoquantifytheassociationbetweenXandY.

Offeringconstructivesuggestions

Smith'spaper

Herconclusions

Thestudy

Thefindings

wouldhavebeen

mighthavebeen

more

muchmore

farmore

useful

convincing

interesting

persuasive

original

ifhe/shehad

iftheauthorhad

included

considered

adopted

used

Abetterstudywouldexaminealarge,randomlyselectedsampleofsocietieswith

AmuchmoresystematicstudywouldidentifyhowXinteractswithothervariablesthatarebelievedtobelinkedto

Highlightinginadequaciesofpreviousstudies

MoststudiesinthefieldofXhaveonlyfocussedon

MoststudiesinXhaveonlybeencarriedoutinasmallnumberofareas.

Thegeneralisabilityofmuchpublishedresearchonthisissueisproblematic.

Theexperimentaldataarerathercontroversial,andthereisnogeneralagreementabout

Suchexpositionsareunsatisfactorybecausethey

However,fewwritershavebeenabletodrawonanystructuredresearchintotheopinionsandattitudesof

TheresearchtodatehastendedtofocusonXratherthanY.

TheexistingaccountsfailtoresolvethecontradictionbetweenXandY.

ResearchershavenottreatedXinmuchdetail.

PreviousstudiesofXhavenotdealtwith

However,thesestudiesusednon-validatedmethodstomeasure

Halfofthestudiesevaluatedfailedtospecifywhether

However,muchoftheresearchuptonowhasbeendescriptiveinnature….

AlthoughextensiveresearchhasbeencarriedoutonX,nosinglestudyexistswhichadequatelycovers

However,theseresultswerebasedupondatafromover30yearsagoanditisunclearifthesedifferencesstillpersist.

I