Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguage.語(yǔ)言學(xué)是對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行的科學(xué)研究。Generallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)是對(duì)語(yǔ)言從整體上進(jìn)行的研究themajorbranchesoflinguistics:語(yǔ)言學(xué)內(nèi)部主要分支Phonetics：thestudyofthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication..（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）對(duì)語(yǔ)言交流中語(yǔ)音的研究Phonologythestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.（音位學(xué)）如何組合在一起并在交流中形傳達(dá)意義.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords（詞法學(xué)、形態(tài)學(xué)）如何排列以及組合起來(lái)構(gòu)成詞語(yǔ)Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences（句法學(xué)）如何在組成語(yǔ)法上可接受的句子Semantics（語(yǔ)義學(xué)）thestudyofmeaninginabstraction語(yǔ)言是用來(lái)傳達(dá)意義的。Pragmatics（語(yǔ)用學(xué)）thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse用來(lái)研究上下文的意義跨學(xué)科分支Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)是語(yǔ)言和社會(huì)之間關(guān)系的研究Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)是語(yǔ)言與心靈的關(guān)系的研究Appliedlinguisticsisthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)是外國(guó)和第二語(yǔ)言教學(xué)的研究Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistic語(yǔ)言學(xué)中一些基本區(qū)分DescriptiveorPrescriptiveAlinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人們對(duì)語(yǔ)言的實(shí)際運(yùn)用，規(guī)定性是在為語(yǔ)言“正確和規(guī)范的”使用確立規(guī)則。SynchronicandDiachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy。共時(shí)性對(duì)語(yǔ)言在歷史的某一時(shí)間點(diǎn)的描述，歷時(shí)性對(duì)語(yǔ)言隨著時(shí)間的變化而變化的描述SpeechandWriting.LangueandParoleThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（實(shí)際的）language,orrealizationoflangue.瑞士語(yǔ)言學(xué)家索緒爾于20實(shí)際早期提出，語(yǔ)言是一個(gè)話語(yǔ)社團(tuán)所有成員共有的抽象的語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)，言語(yǔ)是語(yǔ)言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中的實(shí)現(xiàn)。CompetenceandandPerformanceCompetenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（發(fā)聲）.語(yǔ)言能力定為理想的語(yǔ)言使用者關(guān)于語(yǔ)言規(guī)則方面的知識(shí)，語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用在語(yǔ)言交流中的具體實(shí)現(xiàn)。6Modernlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)與傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的而傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定。Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)家認(rèn)為口頭語(yǔ)是最基本的，而不是書(shū)面語(yǔ)。Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.現(xiàn)在語(yǔ)言學(xué)不同于傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法還在于它不強(qiáng)行將語(yǔ)言放進(jìn)一個(gè)拉丁語(yǔ)為基礎(chǔ)的框架內(nèi).Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.語(yǔ)言是有任意性，用于人類交流的語(yǔ)音標(biāo)志系統(tǒng)。語(yǔ)言的本質(zhì)特征Languageisasystem,i.e,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtocertainrules.語(yǔ)言是一個(gè)系統(tǒng)，即語(yǔ)言的元素相結(jié)合，按照一定的規(guī)則Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.語(yǔ)言符號(hào)和符號(hào)所代表的事物之間沒(méi)有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系，從這個(gè)意義上說(shuō)語(yǔ)言是任意的。Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.語(yǔ)言是有聲，因?yàn)樗姓Z(yǔ)言的主要媒介都是聲音Languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.語(yǔ)言是人類特有的，它與其他生物的交際系統(tǒng)不同Designfeaturesoflanguage語(yǔ)言的結(jié)構(gòu)，識(shí)別特征Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.識(shí)別的特征指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別于任何動(dòng)物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征arbitrariness——Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconventionbetweenmeaningandsounds.任意性-意味意義和語(yǔ)言之間的沒(méi)有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系productivityorCreativitylanguageisproductivityorcreativityinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.能產(chǎn)性-語(yǔ)言是能產(chǎn)的或具有創(chuàng)造性的，它使得者可以建構(gòu)或和解釋的新的符號(hào)duality--languageissystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures.雙重性--語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)，它由兩種結(jié)構(gòu)組成套thelowerorthebasiclevel——soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowordsthehigherlevel——wordswhicharemeaningful.4Displacement——Languagecanbeusetorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker。移位性-語(yǔ)言能夠指遠(yuǎn)離說(shuō)話人所在場(chǎng)合的情境Culturaltransmissionwhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.文化傳承性--而人類的語(yǔ)言能力具有遺傳的基礎(chǔ)，任何語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)的細(xì)節(jié)都要靠傳教和學(xué)習(xí)。Chapter2PhoneticsandphonologyPhoneticsthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages..語(yǔ)音學(xué)是對(duì)語(yǔ)言的媒介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中所有的語(yǔ)音Threebranchesofphonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)三個(gè)分支Articulatory[a:'tikjuleit3ri]phonetics發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)(歷史最悠久)Auditory.['O:ditsri]phonetics——聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)Acoustic[$ku:stik]phonetics聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)threeimportantcavitiesOgans~ofspeech三個(gè)重要區(qū)域發(fā)音器官Pharyngeal[f^rind3i:sl]cavity——thethroat[0rsut];咽腔，喉嚨Theoralcavity——themouth;口腔，嘴巴Nasal['nelzsl]cavity——thenose.鼻腔，鼻子Lips,teeth,teethridge[rid3](alveolus)齒齦,hardpalate硬腭,softpalate(velum)軟腭,uvula['ju:vjulo]小舌,tipoftongueInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)國(guó)際音標(biāo)OrthographiC{:r莊fik}representationofspeechsounds語(yǔ)音的正字法表征Broadtranscription【tr^n'skrlpjo】--thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly寬式標(biāo)音是用代表字母的符號(hào)標(biāo)音Narrowtranscriptionthetranscriptionwithdiacritics.[,dai°'kritik]嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音是用代表字母的符號(hào)和變音共同標(biāo)音Voiceless：whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.[,Anim'pi:did]清音是當(dāng)聲帶完全張開(kāi)，氣流通過(guò)聲帶而不引起振動(dòng)Voicing/voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibration[vai'breijon]effect濁化是當(dāng)氣流在強(qiáng)行穿過(guò)的時(shí)候會(huì)使他們以不同的速度振動(dòng)。ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類Vowels「vaPl]andConsonants['konsnnt]元音和輔音Classificationofconsonants輔音的分類——Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions[di'menJon]:lThemannerofarticulation2Theplaceofarticulation英語(yǔ)中的輔音按兩種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)劃分：1發(fā)音方式2發(fā)音部位Themannerofarticulationstops/plosives:[p],,[t],[d],[k],[g]閉塞音fricatives['fri：kotiv]:[f],[v],[s],[z],[],[],[],[],[h];摩擦音affricates[kfrikit][],[];塞擦音liquids['likwid][r][l]流音nasals「neIzq1]:[m],[n],[];鼻音glides[glaid]:[w],[j]滑音Theplaceofarticulationbilabial[bai'leibisl]:[p],,[m],[w],[b]雙唇音labiodental「leibisu'dentl]:[f],[v];唇齒音dental.[dentsl]:[],[];齒音alveolar[氏l'visls:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];齒齦音palatal['p麹応l]:[],[],[],[],[j];腭音velar['vi:ls]:[k],[g],[];軟顎音glottal['glotl]:[h].喉音ClassificationofEnglishvowels英語(yǔ)亓音的分類thepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,centerorbacktheopeningofthemouth——close,semi-close,semi-open,opentheshapeofthelipsrounded,unroundedthelengthofthesoundtense,lax（緊，松）Monophthongs「monsuf9o?]orpure/singlevowels元音Diphthongs['dif,0o：gorglidingvowels雙元音frontvowelscentralvowelsbackvowelsClose閉Semi-close:半閉Semi-open:半開(kāi)Open:開(kāi)PhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage——thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophonePhone:thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit一phonemePhoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarksAllophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephonemePhoneAphone——aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon't,e.g.[bt]&[bt],[spt]&[spt].PhonemeAphoneme——isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pt],[tp]and

[spt].AllophoneAllophones——thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.Phonemiccontrast——differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bt]and[pt].Complementarydistribution——allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].MinimalpairMinimalpair——whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.SomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleSequentialrules——therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI"mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.thefirstphonememustbe/s/,thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:'牛肉，我，俄語(yǔ)”Assimilationrule——assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetinconceivableinputAssimilationinMandarinalveolar[n]velar[indiscreetinconceivableinputAssimilationinMandarinalveolar[n]velar[]bilabial[]好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊chang跳啊tiaowaDeletionrule——ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Syllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.[mn].Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.But[l],[n]and[m]mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism".Suprasegmentalfeatures——thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):Stress:wordstressandsentencestressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:import;increase;rebel;record...noun:import;increase;rebel;record...Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdog...nounphrase:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdog...Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:dining-room;readingroom;sleepingbag...doer:sleepingbaby;swimmingfish;flyingplane...Sentencestress——therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma媽(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma馬(thethirdrise)ma罵(thefourthfall)IntonationWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“That'snotthebookhewants."Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations——Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“Johndidn'tcomebecauseofMarry"Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn'tcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit."Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone——matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone——politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.Summary:Featuresthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Stressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution一phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution一allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.本章重點(diǎn)：Phonologyisamajorbranchoflinguistics.Itisthestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguagesandofthegeneralpropertiesofsoundsystems.ThedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonologyPhoneticsisregardedasthelinguisticstudytoidentifyanddescribethecharacteristicsofallthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanlanguages,whereasphonologyisthedescriptionofthesoundsystemsandpatternsofindividuallanguages.Phoneticsprovidesthemeansforphonologicaldescription.Andinasense,phonologyisreallytheapplicationofphoneticstotheprocessofcommunicationinaparticularlanguageorlanguages.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds;phonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Speaker'smindmouthearlistener'smindPhonologyphoneticsPhoneticsSoundsoflanguageParole,speechactUniversalConcretePhonologyfunctioningofsoundsaspartofalanguagelanguage,languagesystemlanguage-specificabstractPhone[]phoneme//Althoughbotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,phoneticsstudiestheproduction,transmission,andreceptionofsoundswhilephonologyfocusesonthelinguisticpatternsofspeechsoundsandhowtheyareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.AphoneisAphonemeisOneofmanypossiblesoundsinthelanguagesoftheworldAdistinctiveunitinthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguageThesmallestidentifiableunitfoundinastreamofspeechAminimalunitthatservestodistinguishbetweenmeaningsofwordsPronouncedinadefinedwayPronouncedinoneormoreways,dependingonthenumberofallophonesRepresentedbetweenbracketsbyconventionRepresentedbetweenslashedbyconventionExample:,[l]Example:/b/,/l/Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Thedifferentphones

representingaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalleditsallophones(音位變體)Thedefinitionsofphone,phoneme,allophone,minimalpairandfreevariation,theoriesonphoneme,phonemiccontrastandcomplementarydistribution,featureonphoneticsimilarityanddistinction;assimilationrule,deletionrule,suprasegmetnalfeatures(syllables,stress,tone,intonation,pitch,etc.)Howdoyoufindaphoneme?YouknowsomethingisaphonemeifitisadistinctivesoundinthelanguageHowdoyoufindthesoundsdistinctive?Ifyoufindaminimalpair,youknowthesoundsaredistinctiveWhatisminimalpair?Ifyouhavetwowordswhichareexactlyidenticalwithrespecttosoundsexceptforonesound,andthedifferentsoundsareatthesameposition,andthetwowordshavedifferentmeanings,thenyouhaveaminimalpair.PhoneticsthestudyofspeechsoundsPhonologythestudyofsoundssystemsPhonemevs.phone/allophone/phoneme/abstractActualsound/t/phonemePhoneTwophonesneveroccurinthesameenvironmentcomplementarydistributionTwophonescanoccurinthesameenvironmentfreevariationAlthoughwegeneralizesomerulesforwordstress,itshouldbeborninmindthatsometimestheexceptionsmaywellmakeonegiveuptheidealofrules.Exercisesfromourschool:Complementarydistributionorwhatisarticulatoryphonetics,explaintheprimacyofspeechoverwriting,ordividethefollowingwordsintomorphemes.Foreachmorpheme,identifythetype(lexicalgrammatical,freeorbound,prefixorsuffix,inflectionalorderivational),whereapplicable.restatestrongestwhatisillustratedwiththefollowingpronunciations?cap[kap]cantent,tenthanswer:1)restate={re}+{state}{re}=grammatical,bound,prefix,derivational{state}=lexical,freestrongest={strong}+{SUP}{strong}=lexical,free{SUP}=grammatical,bound,suffix,inflectionalnasalization2)dentalizationtheyareexamplesofregressiveassimilation(逆同化)Page60byHuthephraseFrenchliteratureteacherconstitutesacaseoflexicalambiguitysyntaxismadeupofonemorpheme.artificialsatelliteisacaseofloanblending.(P102byHu)asinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,sotheyareidenticalderivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaningFFFFTforeachofthefollowingwordstranscribephoneticallyandaccountfortheallomorphsofthepasttensemorpheme:waited,waved,waded,wipedillustrateassimilationwithtwoexamples.describetheinitialsoundsofthefollowingwords:toe,chin,thank,goat,moonwhatarethetermsusedtodescribetheword-formationprocessesofthefollowingwords?Vaseline,carelessness,football,car-phone,AIDSAnswers:10./id/(/d/wouldmergewithanotheralveolarplosiveifnotseparatedbyavowel)/d/(voiced/v/isfollowedbyvoiced/d/)/t/(voiceless/p/isfollowedbyvoiceless/t/)assimilationisaprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighbouringsoundsvoicelessalveolarstop,voicelesspalato-alveolarstop,voicelessdentalfricative,voicedvelarstop,voicedbilabialnasal.invention,derivation,compounding,clippingandcompounding,acronymthephonologyorpronunciationofaspecificregionaldialectiscalledisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsphoneswhichneveroccurinthesamephoneticenvironmentaresaidtobeinAboundgrammaticalmorphemeiscalledthewordformationprocess,isexemplifiedbytheword“brunch”theIPAchartcontainsasetofforthepurposeoftranscribingtheminutedifferencebetweenvariationsofthesamesoundAccent,acousticphonetics,complementarydistribution,inflectionalmorpheme,blending,diacriticscomparethetwoterms:morphemeandallomorph,distinctivefeaturesandsemanticfeaturesAphonemeisfurtheranalyzablebecauseitconsistsofasetofsimultaneousdistinctivefeatures.Itisjustbecauseofitsdistinctivefeaturesthataphonemeiscapableofdistinguishingmeaning.Thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.Ontheanalogyofdistinctivefeaturesinphonology,somelinguistssuggestthattherearesemanticfeatures.Themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:[l],[v],[e],[u:][l]voicedalveolarlateral;[v]voicedlabiodentalfricative;[e]centralfrontlaxungroundedvowel;[u:]highbacktenseroundedvowelIsstressaphonologicalproperty?Why?Stressisoneofsuprasegmentalfeatureswhicharethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Wordstressplaysthemeaning-distinctiverole.Affricatesconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatthesameplaceofarticulationtheassimilationruledoesn'taccountforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinationsprefixesnotonlymodifythemeaningofastembutalsochangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalwordTFFinwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot?Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemeswhatkindofevidencecouldbeusedtoarguethatactionandpackageeachcontaintwomorphemes:{act}+{ion}and{pack}+{age}?(hint:amorphemecanappearindependentlyinotherwords.)Answers:{act}occursinact,actor,active,react{ion}occursinconstruction,projection,,inflection,rejection{pack}occursinpack,packs,packed,packing,packer{age}occursinwreckage,baggage,breakagea(n)isthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentityintheproductionofsounds,suchas[p],theupperandthelowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstruction.isaprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighbouringsound.allsyllablesmusthaveabutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.(核心，節(jié)首輔音，結(jié)尾音節(jié))(page69byHu)Root,bilabial,assimilation,nucleuscomparephonologyandphonetics.accountforthedifferenceinarticulationineachofthefollowingpairsofwords:coastghost,boastmostthewordscoastandghostaredistinguishedbythefactthattheinitialsegmentisvoicelessinthecaseoftheformerandvoicedinthecaseofthelatter.Boastandmostaredistinguishedbythemannerofarticulationoftheinitialsegment,/b/beingbilabial,/m/beingnasal.whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhyWhatarethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds.ExplainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondifferWhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?GivethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptionsGivethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsoundsWhatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?SupplementaryExercisesChapter2:PhonologyDecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:VoicingisaphonologicalfeaturethatdistinguishesmeaninginbothChineseandEnglish.Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Aphoneisaphoneticunitthatdistinguishesmeaning.EnglishisatonelanguagewhileChineseisnot.Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Articulatoryphoneticstriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissueswiththehelpofamachinecalledspectrograph.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thethroat,themouthandthechest.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofplaceofarticulationandthepartofthetonguethatisraisedthehighest.Accordingtothemannerofarticulation,someofthetypesintowhichtheconsonantscanbeclassifiedarestops,fricatives,bilabialandalveolar.Vowelsoundscanbedifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionoftongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelscanbeclassifiedintoclosevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowelsandopenvowels.Anysoundproducedbyahumanbeingisaphoneme.Phonesarethesoundsthatcandistinguishmeaning.Phonologyisconcernedwithhowthesoundscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.Therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.Distinctivefeaturesofsoundsegmentscanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:Areferstoastrongpuffofairstreamintheproductionofspeechsounds.Aphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Thefoursounds/p/,/b/,/m/and/w/haveonefeatureincommon,i.e,theyareallbsounds.Ofallthespeechorgans,thetisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleforvarietiesofarticulationthananyother.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofpofarticulation.Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledas.Sfeaturesarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,etc.Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsrules.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscriptionwhilethetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscalledntranscription.Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasi.Pisadisciplinewhichstudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguageandhowsoundsarecombinedintomeaningfulunitstoeffectlinguisticcommunication.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantcavities:thepharyngealcavity,theocavityandthenasalcavity.Tarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcordsandwhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsstress.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachofthestatementsbelow.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:Ofallthespeechorgans,theis/arethemostflexible.mouthB.lipsC.tongueD.vocalcordsThesoundsproducedwithoutthevocalcordsvibratingaresounds.voicelessB.voicedC.vowelD.consonantalisavoicedalveolarstop.A./z/B./d/TOC\o"1-5"\h\zC./k/D./b/Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophones.A.identicalB.sameC.exactlyalikeD.similarSince/p/and/b/arephoneticallysimilar,occurinthesameenvironmentsandtheycandistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobe.A.inphonemiccontrastB.incomplementarydistributionC.theallophonesD.minimalpairThesound/f/is.A.voicedpalatalaffricateB.voicedalveolarstopC.voicelessvelarfricativeD.voicelesslabiodentalfricativeAvowelisonethatisproducedwiththefrontpartofthetonguemaintainingthehighestposition.A.backB.centralC.frontD.middleDistinctivefeaturescanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalled.A.phoneticcomponentsB.immediateconstituentsC.suprasegmentalfeaturesD.semanticfeaturesA(n)isaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit,acollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.A.phoneB.soundC.allophoneD.phonemeThe