China'sRareEarthElementsIndustry:WhatCantheWestLearn?ByCindyHurstCorporateAuthor:

INSTITUTEFORTHEANALYSISOFGLOBALSECURITYWASHINGTONDCPersonalAuthor(s):

Hurst,CindyReportDate:

MAR2010PaginationorMediaCount:

43InstitutefortheAnalysisofGlobalSecurity(IAGS)U.S.ArmyForeignMilitaryStudiesOffice,731McClellanAvenue,FortLeavenworth,KS,66027CindyHurstisananalystfortheU.S.Army’sForeignMilitaryStudiesOffice,FortLeavenworth,KSIntroductionChinacontrolsapproximately97percentoftheworld'srareearthelementmarket.Theseelements,whicharenotwidelyknownbecausetheyaresolowontheproductionchain,arecriticaltohundredsofhightechapplications,manyofwhichdefineourmodernwayoflife.Withoutrareearthelements,muchoftheworld'smoderntechnologywouldbevastlydifferentandmanyapplicationswouldnotbepossible.Foronething,wewouldnothavetheadvantageofsmallersizedtechnology,suchasthecellphoneandlaptopcomputer,withouttheuseofrareearthelements.Rareearthelementsarealsoessentialforthedefenseindustryandarefoundincruisemissiles,precisionguidedmunitions,radarsystemsandreactivearmor.Theyarealsokeytotheemergenceofgreentechnologysuchasthenewgenerationofwindpoweredturbinesandplug-inhybridvehicles,aswellastooilrefineries,wheretheyactasacatalyst.(Note:formorein-depthinformationonthespecificusesofrareearthelements,refertoAppendixA).Overthepastfewyears,Chinahascomeunderincreasingscrutinyandcriticismoveritsmonopolyoftherareearthindustryandforgraduallyreducingexportquotasoftheseresources.However,Chinaisfacedwithitsowninternalissuesthat,ifnotaddressed,couldsoonstressthecountry'srareearthindustry.ThispaperisdesignedtogivethereaderabetterunderstandingofwhatrareearthelementsareandtheirimportancetosocietyingeneralandtoU.S.defenseandenergypolicyinparticular.ItwillalsoexplorethehistoryofrareearthelementsandChina'scurrentmonopolyoftheindustry,includingpossiblerepercussionsandstrategicimplicationsifrareearthelementssupplyweretobedisrupted.TheIssuesChinaFacesAccordingtoZhaoShuanglian,ViceChairmanofInnerMongolia’sAutonomousRegions,“Rareearthisauniquetreasure,anditisalsoInnerMongolia’sprimarystrategicresource.”WhileChinapossessesapproximately57percentoftheworld’sreservesofrareearthelements,theindustrywithinChinaisplaguedwithdisorderlydevelopmentandpoormanagementpractices.TheChinesegovernmentfearsthatifthecurrentpoorminingpracticesandlackofregulationcontinue,Chinawill“becomearare-earthpoorcountry,orevenacountrywithoutrareearthelements.”O(jiān)therissuesfacingChina’srareearthindustryaresmugglingandillegalminingactivities,environmentaldamageduetopoorminingpractice,andthegrowingchallengeofensuringitsowndomesticneedsofrareearth.SmugglingAccordingtoChinaBusinessNews,duetotheannualincreaseddemandforrareearthelements,manybuyersareresortingtosmugglingrareearthsoutofChina.In2008,approximately20,000tonsofrareearthwerereportedlysmuggledfromthecountry.Meanwhile,duringthatsameyear,accordingtoofficialcustomsstatistics,Chinaexported39,500tonsofrareearthoxide.Thismeansthatsmugglingaccountedforone-thirdofthetotalvolumeofrareearthsleavingChina.OneaimofChina’s“Rare-EarthIndustryDevelopmentPlanof2009-2015”istotrytocurbsomeofthesmugglingbyintroducingregulationsandpoliciestopunishthesmugglers.SmugglingispotentiallydetrimentaltoChina’srareearthindustrybecauseitkeepspriceslowanddepletesresourcesquicker.Smugglingalsoindicatesaseverelackofcontrolovertheindustryandcanleadtoevengreaterrepercussionssuchasmoredamagetotheenvironment.Regulationsonsafeminingpracticearenearlyimpossibletoenforceinthistypeofenvironment.Asitis,becauseofpoormanagementpracticesandthelargescaleoftheindustry,Chinaalreadyhasdifficultyinenforcingregulationstoimprovesafetyandenvironmentalmeasuresinitsrareearthindustry.SevereenvironmentaldamageAmajorconcernsurroundingChina’spracticeofminingrareearthelementsisthenegativeimpactithastotheenvironmentduetolaxminingpractices.Thereareanumberofpotentialenvironmentalimplicationstominingrareearthelementsifnotdoneproperly.Unfortunately,becauseoftherevenuepotential,manyrareearthmineshavebeenoperatingillegally,withnoregulation,causingsevereenvironmentalhazards,whichexacerbatestheproblem.In2005,XuGuangxianwrotethatthoriumwasasourceofradioactivecontaminationintheBaotouareaandtheYellowRiver.Accordingtoalocalsource,whoaskednottobeidentified,“IntheYellowRiver,inBaotou,thefishalldied.Theydumpthewaste–thechemicalsintotheriver.Youcannoteatthefishbecausetheyarepolluted.”Some150millionpeopledependontheriverastheirprimarysourceofwater.Undertraditionaltechnologymeans,refiningrareearthelementsrequiressuchchemicalsasammoniumbicarbonateandoxalicacid.Thepotentialhealthhazardsofammoniumbicarbonateinclude:Irritationtotherespiratorytractifinhaled,irritationtothegastrointestinaltractifingested,rednessandpainifitcomesincontactwiththeeyes,andredness,itching,andpainifitcomesincontactwiththeskin.Oxalicacidispoisonousandpotentiallyfatalifswallowed.Itisalsocorrosiveandcausessevereirritationandburnstotheskin,eyes,andrespiratorytract,isharmfulifinhaledorabsorbedthroughtheskin,andcancausekidneydamage.TheseandotherchemicalsoftenfindtheirwayintotheYellowRiver.SafetystandardsinChinaarelax.“Peopleintheir30shavediedofcancerworkingaroundthemines,possiblyfromradioactivematerials,”saidonelocalsource.“Ivisitedafactorymanytimes.WhenIvisitafactoryorworkshop,Itellthedirectoroftheworkshop,‘wouldyoutellthelaborerstoputtheirmaskonwhentheyaredoingtheirjob?’Hesaid,‘Ohyeah.Wedoeverytime,butit’stoohot.Theydon’twanttokeeptheirmaskon.’Youcanseethattheairisdirtyandtheyarebreathingitallin.”ThemostcommondiseaseinBaotouispneumoconiosis,betterknownasblacklung.Thereare5,387residentsinBaotouwhosufferfromblacklung,whichmakesupmorethan50percentofthecasesintheautonomousregion.WhileChinamighthavegeneralpollutioncontrolstandards,thecountryhasneveractuallyworkedoutpollutantdischargestandardsfortherareearthindustry.AstherareearthindustryinChinahasrapidlygrown,therehasbeennoeffectivewaytocontroltheusualpollutantssuchasammonia,nitrogen,andthoriumdust,whichareemittedduringtheproductionphase.Furthermore,generalhealthandsafetyregulationsareoftenignoredforanumberofreasons,including:?Theindustryislargeandchallengingtomonitor.?Peopleandcompaniesarenotbeingheldaccountable.Forexample,inWesternsociety,ifanemployeediesorbecomesill,repercussionscouldincludealawsuitorlife-longpensionwhichthecompanyisobligatedtofulfill.ThisisnotthecaseinChina.DomesticconsumptionisapriorityWith1.3billionpeopleandthefastestgrowingeconomyintheworld,Chinaisfacedwiththechallengingtaskofensuringithasadequatenaturalresourcestosustaineconomicgrowth,whilealsotryingtoappeasetheinternationalcommunity,whichhasbeenprotestingChina’scutsinrareearthexportquotas.AccordingtoWangCaifeng,in2008Chinaused70,000tonsofrareearthelements.Globalconsumptionwas130,000tons.Chinaexported10,000tonsofrareearthmagnetsworth$400millionand34,600tonsofotherrareearthproductsworth$500million.TherearenumerousexamplesthatpointtoChina’santicipatedincreaseinrareearthconsumption.Forexample,attheendofJuly2008,Chinahad600millioncellphoneusers.Lessthanoneyearlater,bytheendofMarch2009,Chinahad670millioncellphoneusers.Newtechnologies,suchasthethirdgeneration(3G)networks,haveboostedthesaleofcellphones,atrendwhichwilllikelycontinueasmoreandmoreChinesecitizensbuycellphonesandothersupgradetothenewtechnologies.Puttingitintoperspective,inChina,approximately50percentofthepopulationhascellphones.CTIA,theInternationalAssociationforWirelessTelecommunications,reportedinOctober2008thattheU.S.(withapopulationof304millionpeopleasofJuly2008)hadmorethan262millionwirelesssubscribers.Thismeansthat86percentoftheentireU.S.populationhadcellphones.IfChinaweretofollowthesametechnologicalgrowthpatternsastheU.S.,thecountrycouldonedayhaveapproximately1.1billioncellphonesormore.Inanotherexample,theuseofsolarandwindpoweraresettoincreaseexponentiallyinChina.Greenenergytechnologyisexpectedtobecomethelargestconsumerofrareearthelementsinthefuture.AccordingtoMarkSmith,ChiefExecutiveOfficerofMolycorpMinerals,thecompanythatownsandoperatestheMountainPassrareearthmineinCalifornia,“We’vecoinedtheterm,‘thegreenelements.’becausetherearesomanyapplicationsrightnowhybridelectricvehicles,windpoweredgeneration…permanentmagnetgenerators,compactfluorescentlightbulbs…Justtonameafew.Rareearthsareabsolutelyindispensable.They(greentechnologies)willnotworkwithoutrareearths.”China’sconsumptionofrareearthelementsisalsoexpectedtoincreasedramaticallyasmoreandmoreforeigncompaniesmovetheirproductionsitestoChinatotakeadvantageofthelowercostofrareearthsandthereforereducetheiroverallproductioncosts.ThisispartofChina’slargerstrategytomaintainatightholdontheindustry.ChinaFightsBackbeforeit’stooLate:ImplicationsfortheWestIn2005,XuGuangxiancalledforprotectivemeasuresintherareearthindustry,warningthatrareearthandthoriumresourcesatBayanObowerein“urgentneedofprotectionandrationalutilization.”XupointedoutthatsinceBayanObohadstartedoffexclusivelyasanironoremine,itdidnotproperlyconsiderwaystorecoverrareearthsandthorium.Since1958,whenBaotouIronandSteelWorksbegantheirminingoperations,250milliontonsoforehadbeenminedatthemainandeasternorebodies,leavingaremainingorevolumeof350milliontons.AttheratethatChinawasmining–10milliontonsoforeperyear–Xuestimatedthatthemainandeasternorebodieswouldbecompletelydepletedwithin35years.Withsomuchemphasisplacedontheimportanceofrareearthelementsinmoderndaytechnology,maintainingstrictcontroloverthisresourcewillhelptopropelChinaintoapositionofgreaterpolitical,economic,andmilitarypower.Priorto2009,accordingtoDaiXu,anexpertonmilitaryissues,“Chinahadbeensellingthesepreciousrare-earthmetalsatadirt-cheappricefor20years.”Thishasbothbeenstrippingthecountryofoneofitsmostimportantstrategicresourcesanddamagingtheenvironment.Inanefforttotrytoprotectitsresources,theChinesegovernmenthasbeenclampingdownonitsdomesticindustryinseveralways,including:restrictingexportquotasonrareearthelements;closingdownsmallerandillegalrareearthoperationsandconsolidatinglargeronesinanefforttogainmorecontrol;tryingtoputintoplaceincreasedenvironmentallawsregulatingrareearthmining;andstockpiling.Muchofthedevelopedworldregardsthesemeasuresasthreatening.RestrictingexportquotasOfmostconcerntotheinternationalcommunity,Chinahasbeenrestrictingexportquotasinordertohaveenoughresourcesforitsownindustriesandtoregaincontroloveritsdomesticoperations.Chinacurrentlyrestrictsexportquotasondysprosium,terbium,thulium,lutetium,yttrium,andtheheavyandscarcerrareearths.Thisreductionofexportquotashaspusheduptheinternationalpriceofkeyrareearths,includingneodymiumwhichissocriticalfortheneodymium-iron-boronpermanentmagnets.TheMinistryofLandandResourcesimplementedaregulationstatingthatthe2009exportquotaforrareearthoreswouldbesetat82,320tons,72,300ofwhicharelightrareearthelements,theremaining10,020tonsbeingheavyrareearthelements.Thesenumberswerebasedon“controlsofthetotalamountofextractionfor”rareearthorefor2008andforecastsformarketfactorsin2009.Morecutsareexpectedinthefuture.Ofcourse,thisbringsaboutanewfear.China’scontroloverrareearthelementshasthepotentialtoincreaseforeigndependenceonChinaforfinishedgoods.Chinahasadoptedvariouspoliciestofurtherdeveloptherareearthindustryatitsroots.China’svisionistoincreaseindustrialutilizationofrareearthelementsinordertodrawinmorerareearthenterprises,bothwithinandoutsideofChina,tosetupoperationsinInnerMongoliaintheareaofrareearthapplications.ZhaoShuanglianpointedoutthatInnerMongoliawantedtocontrolitsrareearthresourcessothatitcouldbecomeamajorindustrialbase.ZhaoalsoexpressedaninterestinattractingmoredomesticandinternationalinterestinInnerMongoliatodeveloptherareearthindustry.ThisisanidealscenarioforChinabecauseitwillgivethecountrycompletecontrolovertheindustryandprovidemorejobopportunitiesforChinesecitizensinthemanufacturingindustry.However,forthosecountriesforcedtomovetheirproductionbasestoChinaduetotheirdependenceonrareearthelements,jobsarelostand,perhapsmorecriticaltonationalsecurity,proprietaryandevencriticaltechnologieswilllikelybecompromised.ClosingsmalleroperationsandconsolidatinglargeronestogainmorecontrolChinaisstrivingtocutbackandconsolidatetheindustrytogainmorecontroloverit.Itisachievingthisbyclosingdownsmaller,illegaloperationsandconsolidatingandmerginglargerproducers.ThesestepswillultimatelyputcompletecontroloverChineserareearthelementsintothegovernment’shands,whichwillcompletelyrestrictanytypeofprivateenterpriseexchange.China’srareearthresourcesarewidelydistributedacross22provincesandregionsthroughoutthecountry.Becauseofthescattereddistributionofrareearthresources,itisdifficulttocarryoutefficientoversightoftheindustry.Accordingtoonesource,areviseddraftofthe2009-2015PlansforDevelopingtheRareEarthIndustrywillsimplifymanagementofChina’srareearthresourcesby“designatinglargedistricts.”ThenewplanwilldivideChina’sindustryintothreelargedistricts–south,north,andwest.ThesoutherndistrictisJiangxi,Guangdong,Fujian,Hunan,andGuangxi;thenortherndistrictisInnerMongoliaandShandong;andthewesterndistrictisSichuan.From2009to2015,lightrareearthswillbetheitemoffocusinInnerMongoliaandSichuan,withsomedevelopmentinShandongasneeded.MediumandheavyrareearthminingwillbethefocusinJiangxi,Guangdong,andFujian.TheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologywilloverseetheindustrybycreatinganexpertexaminationsystemforrareearthextraction.Thesystemwillincludeimpromptuonsitevisitsandinspectionstoensurenationaldirectiveplansarebeingimplementedandexecuted.On10December2008,BaotouSteelRareEarthsetuptheInnerMongoliaBaotouSteelRareEarthHigh-TechCo.,astate-ownedsole-proprietorcompanyintherareearthshigh-techzoneofInnerMongolia;andInnerMongoliaBaotouSteelRareEarthHigh-TechCo.wasaneight-party,700-millionYuan($102.5million)jointventurethatincludedBaotouHuameiRareEarthHigh-techCo.,ZiboBaosteelLingzhiRareEarthHi-TechCo.,InnerMongoliaBaosteelandRare-EarthDevelopmentCo.Thenewventureissupposedtobethecontrollingvoiceoftherareearthindustrybyusinganewbusinessmodelwithaunifiedorganizationandproductionarrangement,unifiedpurchasing,andunifiedsales.Priortothis,thestatehadpromotedtheideaofestablishingtwomajorrareearthgroups,oneinthenorthandoneinthesouth.However,itwasdifficulttobalancetheinterestsbetweenthetwoenterprisesandtheplannevercametofruition.Thebiggestadvantagetohavingoneenterpriseinchargeoftheindustryiseasiercentralcontrolofpricing.Havingacentralizedenterpriseshouldalsofacilitateturningtheregionintoarareearth“productionofgoods”zone.NewregulationstoprotecttheenvironmentChinadoesnothavepollutantdischargestandardsfortherareearthindustry.Environmentalissuesbehindtheminingofrareearthelementsareahugeconcern.ThedifferencesbetweenWesternminingeffortsandthoseseeninChinatodayarestaggering.Awareoftheproblem,thelocalgovernmentisreportingtobetryingtofindwaystoimprovethesituation.InJuly2009,theMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectionorganizedthe“RareEarthIndustryPollutantDischargeStandards.”Thesenewstandardswillhopefully“eliminatebackwardproductionabilitiesandpromotetheupgradingandupdatingofChina’srareearthindustry.”TheMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectionsetdischargestandardsforsixtypesofatmosphericpollutants–sulfurdioxide,particles,fluoride,chlorine,hydrogenchloride,andsulfurtrioxide.Forwaterpollutants,dischargestandardsweresetfor14typesofpollutants,includingfluoride,totalphosphorous,totalcarbon,totalnitrogen,andammonianitrogen.Inmanysouthernregionswithlakes,thenewstandardsimplementspecialdischargelimitsforammonianitrogendischargeconcentrations.Thesenewstandardsaresplitintotwoparts,onepartforexistingenterprisesandtheotherpartfornewlybuiltenterprises.Underthenewstandards,rareearthenterprisesarerequiredtoincreasetheirinvestmentinenvironmentalprotectionandimproveproductiontechnologiesandcosts.StockpilingXuGuangxian,China’s“FatherofRareEarths,”hasbeenpushingtohaveChinabuildupitsstrategicreservesofrareearths.AccordingtoXu,“We(China)mustsetupastockpilingsystemforrareearthsandthorium(thoriumforenergy)andsupportleadingdomesticproducerslikeBaogang,Minmetals,andJiangxiCoppertoimplementthestockpiling.”AccordingtoXu,JapanandSouthKoreahavebuiltupstockpiles,whichareenoughfor20yearsofconsumption,bytakingadvantageoflowmarketpricesbefore2008whenChinabegantorestrictproduction,butChinahasn’tsetupastockpilingsystemyet.AccordingtoAnSihu,assistantdirectoroftheRareEarthHigh-TechZoneManagementCommittee,Chinahasmajorplanstobuildanationalrareearthresourcesstrategicreservesbase.ThetentativeplanistostoreuptherawmaterialsthatwerenotusedupfromtheannualexcavationatBaosteelandusethattostabilizeprices.EffortscurrentlyareunderwayinNorthernChinatorealizethisgoal.AnewrareearthindustryparkbeganconstructioninJuly2008andistobelocatedinNorthernChina.However,inordertobecompletelyeffective,allofChina’srareearthregionsneedtoconsolidatetheireffortstowardtheconstructionanduseofthisplannedrareearthstrategicreservesite.Xucontinuallywarnsaboutdepletingrareearthreservesfromoverproduction.StockpilingrareearthelementswillallowChinatobetterregulatethepricingofrareearthsaswellashelpensureitsownfuturesupplies.From/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA525378中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)：西方能學(xué)到什么？辛蒂·赫斯特集團(tuán)作者：華盛頓全球安全分析研究所個(gè)人作者：辛蒂·赫斯特發(fā)表日期：2010年3月全球安全分析研究所（IAGS）堪薩斯州利溫沃斯堡麥克萊倫大街731號美國陸軍外國軍事研究室，66027辛蒂·赫斯特：堪薩斯州利溫沃斯堡美國陸軍外國軍事研究辦公室分析師。引言中國控制著全球約97%的稀土市場。這些元素并不廣為人知，因?yàn)樗麄冊谏a(chǎn)鏈中是如此之低，但卻是成百上千的高科技應(yīng)用的關(guān)鍵，其中的許多決定了我們的現(xiàn)代生活方式。沒有稀土元素，世界上大部分的現(xiàn)代科技將大大不同，許多應(yīng)用型產(chǎn)品也將無法使用。一方面，不使用稀土元素，我們就沒有微型技術(shù)的優(yōu)勢，如手機(jī)和筆記本電腦。稀土元素對國防工業(yè)也是必不可少的，應(yīng)用于巡航導(dǎo)彈，精確制導(dǎo)武器，雷達(dá)系統(tǒng)和反應(yīng)裝甲。他們也是綠色技術(shù)得以發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵，如新一代的風(fēng)力發(fā)電機(jī)和插電式混合動(dòng)力汽車以及煉油廠，均需要稀土元素作催化劑。在過去的幾年中，中國對其壟斷的稀土行業(yè)的審查和批評日益嚴(yán)格，并逐漸減少稀土的出口配額。然而，中國面臨著自身的內(nèi)部問題，如果不解決，可能很快就會(huì)對其稀土行業(yè)產(chǎn)生不利影響。本文的目的是讓讀者更好地了解稀土元素和它們在社會(huì)上的一般重要性，以及對美國國防和能源政策的特殊性。本文還將探討稀土元素與中國目前的行業(yè)壟斷的歷史，包括在稀土元素供應(yīng)被中斷后可能產(chǎn)生的影響和戰(zhàn)略意義。中國面臨的問題根據(jù)內(nèi)蒙古自治區(qū)副主席趙雙連所說，“稀土是一種獨(dú)特的珍寶，也是內(nèi)蒙古的主要戰(zhàn)略資源”。盡管中國擁有約占世界57%的稀土儲(chǔ)量，但中國的稀土行業(yè)存在的無序發(fā)展和管理不善的問題。中國政府擔(dān)心，如果目前這種簡陋的開采方式和監(jiān)管的缺乏繼續(xù)下去，中國將成為“稀土貧乏的國家，甚至是一個(gè)沒有稀土資源的國家”。中國稀土行業(yè)面臨的其他問題還有稀土走私和非法采礦活動(dòng)，惡劣開采方式所造成的環(huán)境破壞以及確保不斷增長的國內(nèi)稀土需求的挑戰(zhàn)。走私據(jù)第一財(cái)經(jīng)日報(bào)，由于每年對稀土資源的不斷增長的需求，很多買家都從中國走私稀土。據(jù)報(bào)道，2008年該國約20000噸稀土被走私。同時(shí)根據(jù)海關(guān)統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)，同一年中國出口了39500噸稀土氧化物。這意味著走私占中國出境稀土總量的三分之一?！爸袊⊥廉a(chǎn)業(yè)2009-2015發(fā)展計(jì)劃”的一個(gè)目的是試圖通過引入懲罰走私者的法規(guī)和政策來遏制走私行為。走私對中國稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)具有潛在的不利影響，它價(jià)格低，消耗資源也更快。走私也表明嚴(yán)重缺乏對行業(yè)的控制，這可能會(huì)造成更大的不利影響，如對環(huán)境產(chǎn)生更多的破壞。安全開采方式的法規(guī)幾乎不可能在這種環(huán)境中執(zhí)行。實(shí)際上，由于糟糕的管理實(shí)踐和巨大的行業(yè)規(guī)模，中國在執(zhí)行提高安全的法規(guī)和貫徹稀土行業(yè)的環(huán)境保護(hù)措施方面具有難度。嚴(yán)重的環(huán)境破壞中國稀土開采的關(guān)注重點(diǎn)是由松懈的開采方式對環(huán)境所造成的負(fù)面影響。如果做得不恰當(dāng)，會(huì)有許多潛在的環(huán)境因素影響稀土開采。不幸的是，由于可觀的收入，許多稀土礦山缺乏監(jiān)管，非法經(jīng)營，造成了嚴(yán)重的環(huán)境危害，這加劇了問題的嚴(yán)重性。2005年，徐光憲寫道，釷元素是包頭和黃河地區(qū)的放射性污染源。根據(jù)當(dāng)?shù)匾晃徊辉竿嘎缎彰娜耸?，“在黃河、包頭，魚都死了。他們把化學(xué)品廢棄物倒入河中。你不能吃魚，因?yàn)樗麄兌急晃廴玖恕！奔s1.5億人依靠河流作為他們的主要水源。傳統(tǒng)的技術(shù)手段下，提煉稀土元素需要碳酸氫銨和草酸這樣的化學(xué)品。碳酸氫銨的潛在健康危害包括：如果吸入會(huì)刺激呼吸道，吸收后會(huì)刺激胃腸道，如果接觸眼睛會(huì)使其發(fā)紅和疼痛，如果與皮膚接觸會(huì)使其發(fā)紅、瘙癢甚至疼痛。草酸是有毒的，如果吞下則可能致命。它也具有強(qiáng)烈的腐蝕性，會(huì)對皮膚、眼睛和呼吸道造成嚴(yán)重的刺激和灼傷，如果吸入或通過皮膚吸收是十分有害的，會(huì)導(dǎo)致腎臟損傷。但這些和其他化學(xué)物質(zhì)經(jīng)常流入黃河。在中國的安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)比較寬松?！霸诘V山工作的人們30多歲就死于癌癥，很可能是由于放射性物質(zhì)”，一位當(dāng)?shù)厝耸空f?！拔叶啻螀⒂^了一個(gè)工廠，當(dāng)我參觀一個(gè)工廠或車間，我問車間主任：‘當(dāng)他們工作時(shí)你會(huì)告訴工人叫他們戴上面具嗎？’他說：‘是的，我們每次都會(huì)，但它太燙了，他們不想戴著面具?！憧梢钥吹剑麄兾蹪岬目諝舛嘉诉M(jìn)去?！痹诎^最常見的疾病是塵肺病，一般多稱為黑肺。有5387個(gè)包頭居民患有黑肺，占據(jù)了自治區(qū)一半以上的病例。雖然中國可能有一般污染控制標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，但國家還沒有制定出稀土工業(yè)污染物排放標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)在迅速成長，但卻一直沒有控制如氨、氮以及釷塵等在生產(chǎn)階段產(chǎn)生的常見污染物的有效途徑。此外，一般的健康和安全規(guī)章制度往往由于各種原因而被忽視，包括：?行業(yè)龐大，實(shí)行監(jiān)測具有挑戰(zhàn)性。?個(gè)人和企業(yè)不承擔(dān)責(zé)任。例如，在西方社會(huì)，如果一個(gè)雇員死亡或生病，后果可能包括訴訟和終身年金，這是公司必須義務(wù)履行的，但在中國卻不是這樣的。滿足國內(nèi)消費(fèi)是當(dāng)務(wù)之急作為世界上具有13億人口和經(jīng)濟(jì)增長最快的國家，中國面臨著具有挑戰(zhàn)性的任務(wù)，既要確保國內(nèi)具有足夠的自然資源來維持經(jīng)濟(jì)增長，同時(shí)也試圖滿足已在抗議中國削減稀土出口配額的國際社會(huì)。根據(jù)王采風(fēng)，2008年中國消耗了7萬噸稀土資源，全球消費(fèi)量為13萬噸。中國出口1萬噸稀土永磁體價(jià)值4億美元，34600噸的其他稀土產(chǎn)品價(jià)值5億美元。有無數(shù)的例子指出中國的稀土消費(fèi)量預(yù)計(jì)增加。例如，2008年7月底，中國有6億手機(jī)用戶。不到一年后，2009年3月底，中國有6.7億手機(jī)用戶。新技術(shù)如第三代（3G）網(wǎng)絡(luò)增加了手機(jī)的銷量，這一趨勢很可能會(huì)繼續(xù)，越來越多的中國公民會(huì)購買手機(jī)，其他人員則將不斷升級達(dá)到最新技術(shù)。整體來看，中國大約一半人口擁有手機(jī)。國際無線通信協(xié)會(huì)在2008年10月報(bào)道，美國（截至2008年7月人口為3.04億）有超過2.62億的手機(jī)用戶。這意味著整個(gè)美國86%的人口擁有手機(jī)。如果中國遵循與美國相同的技術(shù)增長模式，中國有一天可能會(huì)有大約11億的手機(jī)用戶甚至更多。另一個(gè)例子中，太陽能和風(fēng)能的使用在中國將以指數(shù)方式增加。綠色能源技術(shù)有望成為未來稀土資源的最大消費(fèi)者。根據(jù)莫利礦業(yè)公司的首席執(zhí)行官馬克·史密斯，該公司擁有和經(jīng)營加利福尼亞帕斯山的稀土礦，“我們創(chuàng)造了這個(gè)術(shù)語‘綠色元素’，因?yàn)橛羞@么多的產(chǎn)品需要應(yīng)用稀土元素如混合動(dòng)力汽車、風(fēng)力發(fā)電機(jī)……永磁發(fā)電機(jī)、緊湊型熒光燈泡等等。稀土是必不可少的，沒有稀土他們（綠色技術(shù)）將無法正常運(yùn)作”。隨著越來越多的外國企業(yè)將其生產(chǎn)基地轉(zhuǎn)移到中國，利用其罕見的低成本稀土來降低整體生產(chǎn)成本，中國的稀土消費(fèi)也將急劇增加。這是中國為緊緊把握稀土行業(yè)的大戰(zhàn)略的一部分。中國及