MARCH2025

Challengesand

opportunitiesforthe

zero-emissionvehicle

transitioninruralregions

Authors:GauravDubey,AlexanderTankou,KyleMorrison,SandraWappelhorst,andDaleHall

TheInternationalZero-EmissionVehicleAllianceisanetworkofleadingnationalandsub-national

governmentsdemonstratingtheirdeepcommitmenttoacceleratingthetransitiontozero-emissionvehicleswithintheirmarketsandglobally.ItsmembersincludeAustria,Baden-Württemberg,BritishColumbia,California,Canada,Chile,Connecticut,CostaRica,Germany,Maryland,Massachusetts,

theNetherlands,NewJersey,NewYork,NewZealand,Norway,Oregon,Québec,RhodeIsland,

Switzerland,theUnitedKingdom,Vermont,andWashington.Thememberscollaboratethrough

discussionofchallenges,lessonslearned,andopportunities;hostingeventswithgovernmentsandtheprivatesector;andcommissioningresearchonthemostpressingissuesintheZEVtransition.

Acknowledgments

ThisworkwasconductedfortheInternationalZero-EmissionVehicleAlliancebytheInternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation(ICCT).TheauthorsthankLoganPierceandKaylinLeefor

reviewinganearlierversionofthereport.Wealsoextendourappreciationtothemembersof

theInternationalZero-EmissionVehicleAlliancewhoprovidedkeyinputonpolicyactivitiesandreviewedanearlierversionofthereport;theirreviewdoesnotimplyanendorsement.

secretariat@

|

Executivesummary

Asthetransitiontozero-emissionvehicles(ZEVs)acceleratesaroundtheworld,thereareconcernsaboutanunevenpaceacrossdifferentequitydimensions,includingbetweenurbanandrural

regions.EnsuringasmoothZEVtransitioninruralregionsisimportantnotjustfromanequity

perspective,butalsobecauseruralregionstendtohavegreatercardependenceandmorevehiclemilestraveled,atleastindevelopedeconomies.

ThisreportexaminestheopportunitiesandchallengesforaZEVtransitioninruralregionsbyfirstevaluatingtheextenttowhichdisparitiesexistinZEVuptakebetweenurbanandruralregions

inGermanyandtheU.S.stateofNewYorkandthenexploringpotentialexplanationsforthese

differences.BasedonareviewofliteratureandinterviewswithruralZEVusersinNorthAmericaandEurope,wethendiscussdifferentstepsthatcanbetakentoacceleratetheZEVtransitioninruralregions.Thereport’smainfindingsaresummarizedbelow.

RuralregionsinGermanyareoutperformingurbanregionsinbatteryelectricvehicle(BEV)

adoption,whileruralregionsinNewYorkstatearesubstantiallybehindurbanregions.In

2023,63%ofthe110ruralregionsinGermanyhadBEVregistrationsharesofnewpassengercarregistrationsequaltoorabovethenationalaverageof18%.Incomparison,56%ofthe95urbanregionsinGermanyhadratesequaltoorabovethenationalaverage.Thisissimilartoprevious

years.InNewYorkin2023,36%ofthe22urbanregionshadBEVregistrationsharesofnewcarsandlighttrucks(collectivelyreferredtoaslight-dutyvehicles)registrationsequaltoorabovethestateaverageof5.3%,whilenoruralregionswereatorabovetheaverage.FigureES1comparesBEVsharesofnewvehicleregistrationswiththenationalaverage(Germany)orwiththestate

average(NewYorkstate)inrural,intermediate(withurbanizationlevelsbetweenruralandurbanregions),andurbanregionsinGermanyandNewYorkstate.

i

ii

BatteryelectricvehicleregistrationshareequaltoorabovetheGermanaverage(18%)in2023

PredominantlyurbanregionsIntermediateregions

Predominantlyruralregions

BatteryelectricvehicleregistrationsharebelowtheGermanaverage

(18%)in2023

PredominantlyurbanregionsIntermediateregions

Predominantlyruralregions

Batteryelectricvehicleregistration

shareequaltoorabovetheNewYorkaverage(5.3%)in2023

PredominantlyurbanregionsIntermediateregions

Predominantlyruralregions

BatteryelectricvehicleregistrationsharebelowtheNewYorkaverage(5.3%)in2023

PredominantlyurbanregionsIntermediateregions

Predominantlyruralregions

FigureES1.Batteryelectricvehicleshareofnewpassengercars(Germany)andcarsandlighttrucks(NewYork)

registrationsin2023byrural,intermediate,andurbanregionscomparedwiththenationalorstateaverage

Thereisevidenceofvaryingpatternsanddegreesofassociationbetweenurbanization,income,andpublicchargingdeploymentandurban-ruraldisparitiesinBEVuptakeinGermanyand

NewYorkstate.InNewYorkstate,noruralregionhasaBEVshareofnewlight-dutyvehicle

registrationsequaltoorabovethestateaverage.Althougheightoutofthestate’s22urbanregionsareatoraboveaverage,allareclusteredaroundtheNewYorkmetropolitanarea.Furthermore,

wefindahighstatisticalcorrelationbetweenincomeandBEVregistrationshareinNewYorkstatewhileinGermany,63%(65/103)ofbelow-averageincomeruralregionshaveequaltoorabove-

averageBEVregistrationshares.Similarly,theper-capitapublicchargingpointsmetric,which

includesbothalternatingcurrent(AC)anddirectcurrent(DC)chargers,isaboveaverageforabout80%ofruralregionsinGermany,whichalignswellwith63%ofruralregionshavingBEVregistrationsharesequaltoorabovethenationalaverage.However,27%ofruralGermanregionshavean

above-averagenumberofACchargingpointsbutbelow-averageBEVregistrationshares,whileinNewYorkstate50%ofruralcountieshaveabove-averageACchargingpointswhilenoruralNewYorkcountyhasanequaltoorabove-averageBEVregistrationshare.

iii

Ininterviews,ruralBEVusershighlightedlackofawarenessasakeybarrier.All14individuals

interviewed,locatedacrossNorthAmericaandEurope,werehighlysatisfiedwiththeirdecision

toswitchtoelectriccars.Theintervieweescitedeaseofhomechargingcombinedwiththe

performancecharacteristicsofBEVs(e.g.,higheracceleration)onnarrowruralroadsasimportantpositives.Whiletheyalsosaidthatoft-citedchallengeslikeaffordability,publicchargingadequacy,andpowersupplyandgridissuesremain,theyfeltthatsomeprevalentperceptionsofthe

capabilitiesofBEVsareoutdatedanddonotreflecttheprogressinBEVrangeandcharginginfrastructureavailabilityinrecentyears.

Targetedawareness-buildingcampaignscouldacceleratetheruralZEVtransition.Thingslike

testdriveandcarsharingprogramsthatencourageuserstoborroworrentaBEVforashort

periodforfreeorminimalchargecanbeuseful.OneexampleistheRuralReimaginedtestdrive

programfocusedonselecteconomicallydistressedAppalachiancommunitiesintheUnited

States.Awareness-buildingeffortscanalsoincreasetheeffectivenessofotherstrategiesaimed

atpromotingBEVadoption.Evidenceofthiswasfoundintworuralregions,oneinGermanyand

theotherinNewYorkstate,withabove-averageBEVregistrationsharesexploredascasestudies.Finally,strategiesforpromotingBEVadoptioncantargetabroadcategoryoflow-uptakeareas

thatencompassesruralregions.Forexample,Scotlandprovidesgovernment-funded,interest-

freeloansforpurchasingausedelectriccartoresidentsofsmalltowns,ruralandremoteareas,orislands,andAustriapromotestheconstructionofpublicfastchargersinunderservedareasthatdonothavefastchargingwithina7kmradiusthroughitsLADINinfrastructureprogram.

iv

Contents

Executivesummary i

Introduction 1

Urban-ruraldichotomy 1

Insightsfromliterature 2

BatteryelectricvehicleadoptioninurbanandruralregionsinGermanyandNewYorkstate 4

Potentialfactorsassociatedwithurban-ruraldisparities 8

Publiccharginginfrastructuredeployment 8

Incomelevels 11

Statisticalinsights 13

CasestudiesofruralregionswithhighBEVsharesinnewregistrations 16

Summaryoffactorsassociatedwithurban-ruraldisparities 17

InsightsfromBEVuserinterviews 18

Motivationsandexperiences 18

Chargingandrangeanxiety 19

SuitabilityofBEVsforruralregions 20

SupportingBEVadoption 21

Summary 21

StrategiesforenablinghigherBEVadoptioninruralregions 22

Conclusions 23

References 25

AppendixA.Definitionsofurbanandruralinselectjurisdictions 29

AppendixB.Userinterviews–approachandmethodology 30

AppendixC.OverviewofstrategiesforacceleratingruralBEVadoption 31

v

Listoffigures

FigureES1.BEVshareofnewpassengercar(Germany)andcarsandlight

trucks(NewYork)registrationsin2023byrural,intermediate,andurbanregions

comparedwiththenationalorstateaverage ii

Figure1.Shareoftotalbatteryelectricpassengercarregistrationsin2023by

rural,intermediate,andurbanregionsequaltooraboveandbelowtheGerman

andNewYorkstateaverage 7

Figure2.PublicACandDCchargingpointsper10,000inhabitantsinrural,

intermediate,andurbanregionsinGermanyin2023 10

Figure3.PublicACandDCchargingpointsper10,000inhabitantsinrural,

intermediate,andurbancountiesinthestateofNewYorkin2023 11

Figure4.Incomelevelsandbatteryelectricvehicleregistrationsharesinrural

regionsinGermany 13

Listoftables

Table1.Urban,intermediate,andruralclassificationofregionsinGermany

andNewYorkstate 5

Table2.Registrationsharesofbatteryelectricvehiclesacrossurban,rural,

andintermediateregionsinGermanyandNewYorkstate 6

Table3.Publicchargingdeploymentacrossurban,intermediate,and

ruralregionsofGermanyandNewYorkstate 8

Table4.Incomelevelsandbatteryelectricvehicleregistrationshares

inruralregionsinGermanyandNewYorkstate 12

Table5.Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientsbetweenbatteryelectricvehicle

registrationsharesandpotentialexplanatoryfactorsforNewYorkstate 14

Table6.Profileofthe14interviewees 18

TableA1.Definitionsofurbanandruralusedinthisstudy 28

TableC1.Strategiesforacceleratingruralbatteryelectricvehicleadoption 30

Introduction

Thetransitiontozero-emissionvehicles(ZEVs)isprogressingglobally.1In2023,9.5millionnew

batteryelectricvehicles(BEVs)wereregistered,upmorethan20%fromtheover7.3million

registeredin2022(InternationalEnergyAgency[IEA],2024).AnacceleratedtransitiontoZEVsisnotonlycrucialtoattainingParisAgreementclimategoals(Senetal.,2023)butalsoofferstheco-benefitsofreducedairpollutionandimprovedpublichealthoutcomes.

Whiletheoverallprogressispositive,concernshavebeenraisedaboutanunevenpaceoftransitionacrossvariousequitydimensions,includingdevelopedeconomiescomparedwithemerging

marketsanddevelopingeconomies(ZEVTransitionCouncil,2023),vehicleuserswithlowerversushigherincomes(Sovacooletal.,2019),anddisparitiesbetweenurbanandruralareas(Wappelhorst,

2021).TherearevariousreasonstobeinterestedintheZEVtransitioninruralregionsinparticular.

Asruralregionsindevelopedeconomiesareassociatedwithhighercardependenceandvehicle-milestraveled(FederalHighwayAdministration,2022),thisimpliesahighercontributionto

greenhousegasemissionspervehicle.Additionally,althoughsomestudieshavehighlightedtheneedtoensureaccesstoelectricvehiclesinruralregionssothatallcommunitiescanpartakeintheireconomicandenvironmentalbenefits(Wappelhorst,2021),thebulkofresearchonZEVstodateisurban-focused(McKinneyetal.,2023).Thisleavesagapintheliteraturefromwhichpolicymakerscandrawinsights.

Inthiscontext,thisstudyexaminestheopportunitiesandchallengesforaZEVtransitioninrural

regions.Wedrawonexistingliteratureandconductourownempiricalresearchtoinvestigate

whetherdisparitiesexistinZEVuptakebetweenurban,intermediate(withurbanizationlevels

betweenurbanandruralregions),andruralregionsinGermanyandthestateofNewYorkinthe

UnitedStates.Wethenexaminevariouspotentialexplanationsforthedisparitiesandevaluatehowopportunitiescanbeleveragedtoaddresschallenges.

ThestudypresentsaquantitativeandgeospatialcomparativeanalysisforurbanandruralregionsinGermanyandthestateofNewYorkfromsecondarydataofBEVregistrations,publiccharginginfrastructuredeployment,andhouseholdincome.Wealsoconductedstatisticalanalysisto

detectpotentialcorrelationsbetweenvariablesandperformedacloserexaminationoftworural

regions,oneinGermanyandoneinNewYork,thathaveabove-averageBEVregistrationshare.

WeadditionallyconductedinterviewswithasmallsampleofruralBEVownersinNorthAmerica

andEuropeandaliteraturereviewofgoodpracticesintermsofpolicydeployments.Basedonthefindings,wediscussstepsthatcanbetakentoacceleratetheZEVtransitioninruralregionsand

presentanoverviewofpolicypracticesfromleadinggovernments.

Urban-ruraldichotomy

Urbanareasaretypicallydefinedassettlementswitharelativelyhighdensityofpopulationordevelopmentorahighpopulationsize,andthethresholdsfordensityandpopulationsizevaryacrossjurisdictions.Ruralareasareoftendefinedbynegationasallthatisnoturban.Insomeinstances,“intermediate”regionsarealsodefinedasthosewithpopulationsizeordensities

1Thisstudyfocusesonbatteryelectricpassengercars,aswellaslighttrucksinNorthAmerica,andthetermsbattery

electricvehicle(BEV)andzero-emissionvehicle(ZEV)areusedinterchangeably.Werecognizehydrogenfuel-cellelectricvehiclesasZEVs,buttheywerenotalargeportionofpassengercarregistrationsinrecentyearsandarenotthefocusofthisstudy.

1

2

betweentheurbanandruralthresholds;inothers,sub-categoriesarecreatedforruralandurban,suchasinEngland,wherethereare“urbanwithsignificantlyrural”and“l(fā)argelyrural”areas(OfficeforNationalStatistics,2017).Anoverviewoftheapproachestodefiningurbanandruralareasin

selectjurisdictionsisprovidedinAppendixA.

Whilethenuancesofthedefinitionsarenotpertinenttounderstandingtheresultsofthisstudy,

theurban-ruraldemarcationissignificantforpublicpolicyandgovernanceacrosssectors,asthechallengesandsolutionsintheZEVtransitionoftenvaryconsiderablybetweenruralandurban

areas(OfficeforNationalStatistics,2017).Forinstance,thedeploymentofhigh-frequencypublictransportsystemsisoftenconsideredunviableinlow-densityruralareasforwantofjustifiable

passengerdemand(Porruetal.,2020)andviableincitieswithlargerpopulationsandhigh-

volumetraveldemand.Thishascontributedtogreatercardependencyinruralareasindevelopedeconomies(Gray,2004).

Insightsfromliterature

Ourreviewofthegrowingbodyofliteratureontherural-urbandivideintheZEVtransition

suggeststhedynamicsarecomplex.Thiscomplexityisexaminedherealongthreeinterrelateddimensions:disparitiesbetweenruralandurbanZEVuptake;potentialreasonsbehindthe

disparities;andwhethersuchdisparitiesareuniquetotheZEVtransition.

First,withinextantliterature,disparitiesbetweenZEVuptakeinruralandurbanareasvary

acrossjurisdictions.Broadly,thereisevidenceofcitiesleadingtheZEVtransition.Thetwenty-

fivemetropolitanareasthataccountedfor32%oftotalglobalnewelectricvehicleregistrations

(batteryelectricandplug-inhybridelectricvehicles)in2020werehometoonly13%ofallnew

vehicleregistrationsgloballythatyearand4%oftheglobalpopulation(Bernardetal.,2021).In

China,wherealmost35%ofthepopulationlivesinruralregions(Jin&Chu,2023),thetop30city

marketsalonewerehometoalmost70%ofallnewenergyvehiclesalesin2020(Chuetal.,2022).2Thedisparityisattributedtohighupfrontpurchasecostsforelectricvehicles,theloweraverage

disposableincomeofruralresidentscomparedwithurban,andlimitedaccesstoBEVinformation,products,andservicesinruralareas(Jin&Chu,2023).Similarly,2020datashowedBEVownershipwashigherinurbanregionsthanruralregionsinCalifornia,andrelativedifferencesinincomelevelswerecitedasapotentialreason(Robinsonetal.,2023).

Incontrast,anICCTstudyofBEVuptakeinGermanybasedon2022datafoundthat56%ofruralandintermediateregionswereatorabovetheGermannationalaverageforBEVregistrationsbyprivateindividuals,andinurbanregions,only33%hadBEVregistrationsharesequaltoorabovethenationalaverage(Wappelhorstetal.,2023).Thereisalsoevidenceofsomeruralregions

outperformingurbanregionsmoregenerallyacrossEurope(Morrison&Wappelhorst,2022).

Secondly,awiderangeofpotentialfactors,notnecessarilygroundedinempiricalstudiesandoftenagnosticofjurisdiction,havebeenputforthtoexplainslowerZEVuptakeinruralareassincethe

earlydaysofthetransition(e.g.,Aultman-Halletal.,2012)andsomehavequestionedtheideathatZEVsaremorecompatiblewithurbanareas(e.g.,Kesteretal.,2020;Newmanetal.,2014).Potentialbarriersintheliteraturecanbeputintotwocategories:thosethataretypicallyapplicabletoboth

2InChina,thetermnewenergyvehicleencompassesbatteryelectric,plug-inhybridelectric,andhydrogenfuel-cellelectricvehicles.

3

ruralandurbanregionsbutmaybemorepronouncedinruralregions,andthosethataretypicallyonlyapplicabletoruralregions.

Withinthefirstcategory,issuesaroundrangeanxietyandinadequatepubliccharginginfrastructuredeploymentinruralareas,usuallydrivenbylackofabusinesscase(ICF&Cenex,2024),have

oftenbeenhighlighted(FederalHighwayAdministration,2022).Meanwhile,theaveragerange

ofmedium-sizecarsandsportutilityvehicleshasincreasedtoabout380kmasof2023,upfromaround150kmformediumcarsand270kmforsportutilityvehiclesin2015,whichisencouragingfordriversforlongjourneysandnon-urbanuse(IEA,2024).Furthermore,thereisevidenceofa

positivecorrelationbetweenaveragedisposableincomeandBEVsharesinnewpassengercar

registrationsinruralregionsinGermany(Wappelhorstetal.,2022).Lackofawarenessabout

BEVsandtheirusability(Esmene&Leyshon,2019;U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,2023),

environmentalawareness(Wappelhorstetal.,2022),andhighereducationalattainmentand

politicalalignmentwiththeDemocraticpartyintheUnitedStates(Min&Mayfield,2023)havealsobeenassociatedwithratesofadoption.

Inthecategoryofrural-onlyissues,insufficientdiversityofBEVmodelsinthesegmentsprevalentinruralareas,suchaspick-uptrucks,isoftenofferedasabarriertoadoption(Baataretal.,2019;

Robinsonetal.,2023).However,thisischangingrapidly:almosttwo-thirdsofthebatteryelectric

modelsavailableintheglobalmarketin2023weresportutilityvehicles,pick-uptrucks,orlarge

cars(IEA,2024).Inadequateelectricitysupplyorlackofappropriateinfrastructure,suchasthelackofathree-phaseelectricitysupplythatiscrucialforfastcharging(Hunteretal.,2023),canfurtherimpedeuptake.Inadequaterepairandmaintenancecapacityinruralareasisalsocitedasanissue(PintodeMoura,2023).

Atthesametime,theeaseofsettingupprivatehomecharginginruralareasthatisenabledby

thehighershareofone-andtwo-familyhomescanbeanadvantage(Mannetal.,2014;Schippl

&Truffer,2020;Wappelhorstetal.(2022)).Moreover,BEVstendtohavelowerper-milefueland

maintenancecostscomparedwithinternalcombustionenginevehicles(ICEVs).Assuch,ithas

beenarguedthatthehighermileageassociatedwithruraldrivershelpsbringdownthetotalcostofownershipandmakesruralareaspotentiallymoreattractiveforaBEVtransitionthanurbanareas(e.g.,Pl?tzetal.,2014;Robinsonetal.,2023).Arecentstudybasedonsocialmediadatafound

thatU.S.countieswithhigherpercentagesofruralpopulationexhibitedmorepositivesentimentstowardelectricvehicles(Wangetal.,2024).

Finally,evidencesuggeststhattherural-urbandivideisnotuniquetotheZEVtransition.TherewaswidespreadoppositiontothetransitiontoautomobilesfromhorsecarriagesintheruralUnited

Statesduringtheearly20thcentury,evenasithadalreadystartedtotakeholdincities(Kline&

Pinch,1996),andinternetuseintheruralUnitedStateshaslaggedurbanareasalmostconsistentlyby6to7percentagepointsformostoftheperiodsincethe1990s(Carlson&Goss,2016).Asurveyconductedin2021foundthatruralU.S.residentswerelesslikelythantheirurbancounterparts

tohaveaccesstobroadband,smartphones,orcomputers(Vogels,2021).Ontheotherhand,theadoptionofsolarwaterheatersinChinabeganinruralareasandtherewerechallengestotheiradoptioninurbanareas(Yu&Gibbs,2018).

Tosummarize,ourreviewoftheliteratureindicatesthatrural-urbandisparitiescanvaryacross

jurisdictions.Multiplefactorsthatarelocation-agnosticcanbeassociatedwithlowerZEVuptakeinruralareas.Theseincludeinadequacyofpubliccharging,affordability,andlackofawareness,amongothers.Atthesametime,easeofhomechargingandoperationalcostsavingscanworkin

4

favorofruralareas.Urban-ruraldisparities,insofarastheyexist,arenotuniquetoZEVsandcanbefoundacrossthespectrumofvarioustechnologies.

Ourreviewsuggestsalackofqualitativeevidencebackedbyprimarydatatosupportclaimsaboutthechallenges,opportunities,andstrategiesforacceleratingBEVuptakeinruralareas.Although

onlyafewstudies(e.g.,Quallenetal.,2023)haveexaminedthepreferencesandbehavioral

patternsofexistingorpotentialusersandnon-usersofBEVsinruralareas,suchstudiesaboundforurbanareas.Toamodestdegree,thisstudyaimstohelpaddressthisgapbyofferinginsightsfrominterviewswithBEVownersinNorthAmericaandEurope.Inaddition,thereisaneedtofurther

substantiate,update,anddiversifyevidenceregardingvariationswithinBEVadoptionratesinrural

andurbanareasacrossdifferentjurisdictions.ThroughcasestudiesofGermanyandthestateofNewYork,thisstudyhelpsexpandthisbodyofevidence.

BatteryelectricvehicleadoptioninurbanandruralregionsinGermanyandNewYorkstate

Theurban,rural,andintermediateregionsofGermanyandthestateofNewYorkwerechosen

foranalysisbecausetheyhaveBEVregistrationsharesrelativelysimilartotheirbroaderregionalaverages(18%BEVregistrationsintotalnewpassengercarregistrationsinGermanyin2023

comparedwith15%intheEuropeanUnion,and5.3%inNewYorkstatecomparedwith8%intheUnitedStates).Thismakestheresultspotentiallymorerelevanttoothergeographies.Moreover,bothjurisdictionshaveamixoflargecities,smallcities,andruralareas,andthatishelpfulfor

drawingmeaningfulcomparisons.

Table1

summarizestheclassificationsystemusedforregionsinNewYorkstateandGermany.

ThissystemisusedconsistentlythroughoutthestudytoanalyzeBEVuptakeanditsrelationshipwithpotentialexplanatoryfactors.Giventhedifferencesingeography,travelpatterns,and

dataavailability,thedefinitionsforGermanyandNewYorkdifferbothinthedefinitionofurbanpopulationandinthethresholdsusedtodefineurban,intermediate,andruralregions.

ForGermany,weadoptedtheEUclassificationfor“predominantlyrural,”“intermediate,”and

“predominantlyurban”ofNUTSlevel3regionsprovidedinEurostat(2018).Whileseveral

definitionsofurbanareasexistacrossdifferentorganizationsorprogramsintheUnitedStates,weusedthedefinitionfromtheU.S.CensusBureau(2024a)becauseitprovidescounty-leveldataonurbanpopulationpercentages.Weusedthesepercentagestoclassifycountiesas“predominantlyrural”(urbanpopulation≤33.3%),“intermediate”(urbanpopulation>33.3%and≤66.6%),and

“predominantlyurban”(urbanpopulation>66.6%).NotethattheU.S.Census2020doesnot

directlyclassifycountiesinthismanner.Note,too,thatweuse“regions”inthisreportasabroadtermtomeanbothdistrictsanddistrict-freecitiesinGermanyandcountiesinNewYorkstate

whenevertheyarereferredtocollectively.

5

Table1.Urban,intermediate,andruralclassificationofregionsinGermanyandNewYorkstate

Jurisdiction

Unitof

classification

(total

number)

Classification

Definition

Definition

source

Number

(percentage

oftotalinthe

jurisdiction)

Shareof

population

inNewYork

state(2022)or

Germany(2023)

NewYorkstate

County(62)

Predominantlyrural

Percentageof

urbanpopulation

≤33.3%

Urbanpopulation

percentagebasedonU.S.Census

2020definitionof“urban”(seeAppendixA)

Demarcationsfor“predominantlyurban,”

“intermediate,”and

“predominantlyrural”setbytheICCT

20(32%)

5%

Intermediate

Percentageof

urbanpopulation>33.3%and≤

66.6%

20(32%)

9%

Predominantlyurban

Percentageof

urbanpopulation>66.6%

22(35%)

86%

Germany

NUTSlevel3regions

representing

districtsand

district-free

cities(400)

Predominantlyrural

Regionswhereatleast50%ofthe

populationlivesinruralgridcellsa

Intermediate

Regionswheremorethan50%andupto80%ofthepopulationlivesinurban

clusters

Predominantlyurban

Regionswhere

morethan80%ofthepopulation

livesinurbanclusters

Eurostat(see

AppendixA)

110(27%)

16%

195(49%)

41%

95(24%)

44%

Note:Percentagesmaynotsumto100%duetorounding.

aRuralgridcellsarethosethatarenotidentifiedasurbanclustersorcenters(aclusterofcontiguousgridcellsof1km2withapopulationdensityofatleast1,500perkm2andcollectivelyaminimumpopulationof50,000).

DataprovidedbytheNewYorkStateDepartmentofMotorVehicles(2024)wereusedtocalculatenewBEVregistrationsinthestatein2023(intotal~45,000).ForGermany,weuseddataprovidedbyDataforce(2024)basedondatafromKraftfahrt-BundesamttocalculatenewBEVregistrationsin2023(intotal~524,000).TheDataforcedatawasanalyzedinanotherICCTstudy(Wappelhorstetal.,2024);thispaperbuildsuponthatanalysistodrawoutadditionalconsiderationsforrural

areasinaglobalcontext.Themeanpe