胡壯麟語言學

Chapter1

I.Choosethebestanswer.(20%)

1.Thesentencestructureis.

A.onlylinearB.onlyhierarchical

C.complexD.bothlinearandhierarchical

2.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguageareinnumber.

A.largeB.smallC.finiteD.infinite

3.Therulesaretherulesthatgroupwordsandphrasestoformgrammatical

sentences.

A.lexicalB.morphologicalC.linguisticD.

combinational

4.Asentenceisconsideredwhenitdoesnotconformtothegrammaticalknowledgein

themindofnativespeakers.

A.rightB.wrongC.grammaticalD.

ungrammatical

5.Aintheembeddedclausereferstotheintroductorywordthatintroducesthe

embeddedclause.

A.coordinatorB.particleC.prepositionD.subordinator

6.Phrasestructureruleshave____properties.

A.recursiveB.grammaticalC.socialD.functional

7.Phrasestructurerulesallowustobetterunderstand.

A.howwordsandphrasesformsentences.

B.whatconstitutesthegrammaticalityofstringsofwords

C.howpeopleproduceandrecognizepossiblesentences

D.alloftheabove.

8.Theheadofthephrase“thecityRome"is.

A.thecityB.RomeC.cityD.the

cityRome

9.Thephrase“ontheshelf1belongstoconstruction.

A.endocentricB.exocentricC.subordinateD.

coordinate

10.Thesentence“Theywerewantedtoremainquietandnottoexposethemselves."isa

__________sentence.

A.simpleB.coordinateC.compoundD.

complex

II.Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)

11.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulesthatcomprisethe

systemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerareknownaslinguistic

competence.

12.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,butthereisnolimittothenumber

ofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.

13.Inacomplexsentence,thetwoclausesholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.

14.Constituentsthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongto

thesamesyntacticcategory.

15.Minorlexicalcategoriesareopenbecausethesecategoriesarenotfixedandnewmembers

areallowedfor.

16.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedand

discussed,namely,nounphrase,verbphrase,infinitivephrase,andauxiliaryphrase.

17.InEnglishthesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowsthe

verb.

18.Whatisactuallyinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisacompletelistofwordsand

phrasesratherthangrammaticalknowledge.

19.Anounphrasemustcontainanoun,butotherelementsareoptional.

20.Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentences

atthelevelofD-structure.

III.Fillintheblanks.(20%)

21.Asentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicate

andstandsaloneasitsownsentence.

22.Aisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordsto

formacompletestatement,questionorcommand.

23.Amaybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthe

predicate.

24.Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsays

somethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalled.

25.Asentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintothe

other.

26.Inthecomplexsentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledan

clause.

27.Majorlexicalcategoriesarecategoriesinthesensethatnewwordsare

constantlyadded.

28.conditiononcaseassignmentstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipient

shouldstayadjacenttoeachother.

29.aresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinone

wayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamong

naturallanguages.

30.Thetheoryofconditionexplainsthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyin

subjectandobjectpositions.

IV.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.(20%)

31.Syntax

32.ICanalysis

33.Hierarchicalstructure

34.Tracetheory

V.Answerthefollowingquestions.(20%)

35.Whatareendocentricconstructionandexocentricconstruction?(武漢大學，2004)

36.Distinguishthetwopossiblemeaningsof“morebeautifulflowers^^bymeansofICanalysis.

（北京第二外國語大學，2004）

VI.Analyzethefollowingsituation.(20%)

37.DrawatreediagramaccordingtothePSrulestoshowthedeepstructureofthesentence:

1~5BACCC6-10BACAC

II.

11-15FFTFF16-20FFFFF

III.

21.verbal22.productivity/creativity

23.metalingualfunction24.yo-he-ho

25.scientific26.descriptive

27.speech28.diachroniclinguistic

29.langue30.competence

IV.

31.Designfeature:Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthe

differencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.

32.Displacement:Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,

eventsandconcepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.

33.Competence:Itisanessentialpartofperformance.Itisthespeaker'sknowledgeofhis

orherlanguage;thatis,ofitssoundstructure,itswords,anditsgrammaticalrules.Competenceis,

inaway,anencyclopediaoflanguage.Moreover,theknowledgeinvolvedincompetenceis

generallyunconscious.Atransformational-generativegrammarisamodelofcompetence.

34.Synchroniclinguistics:Itreferstothestudyofalanguageatagivenpointintime.The

timestudiedmaybeeitherthepresentoraparticularpointinthepast;synchronicanalysescan

alsobemadeofdeadlanguages,suchasLatin.Synchroniclinguisticsiscontrastedwith

diachroniclinguistics,thestudyofalanguageoveraperiodoftime.

V.

35.

Dualitymakesourlanguageproductive.Alargenumberofdifferentunitscanbeformedoutofa

smallnumberofelements-forinstance,tensofthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds,

around48inthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage.Andoutofthehugenumberofwords,therecanbe

astronomicalnumberofpossiblesentencesandphrases,whichinturncancombinetoform

unlimitednumberoftexts.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothavethisdesignfeatureof

humanlanguage.

Iflanguagehasnosuchdesignfeature,thenitwillbelikeanimalcommunicationalsystemwhich

willbehighlylimited.Itcannotproduceaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations,e.g.words,

whicharedistinctinmeaning.

36.

Itisdifficulttodefinelanguage,asitissuchageneraltermthatcoverstoomanythings.

Thus,definitionsforitallhavetheirownspecialemphasis,andarenottotallyfreefrom

limitations.

VI.

37.

Itshouldbeguidedbythefourprinciplesofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency,economy

andobjectivityandfollowthescientificprocedure:formhypothesis-collectdata-checkagainst

theobservablefacts-cometoaconclusion.

Chapter2SpeechSounds

I.Choosethebestanswer.(20%)

1.Pitchvariationisknownaswhenitspatternsareimposedonsentences.

A.intonationB.toneC.pronunciationD.voice

2.Conventionallyaisputinslashes(//).

A.allophoneB.phoneC.phonemeD.morpheme

3.Anaspiratedp,anunaspiratedpandanunreleasedpareofthepphoneme.

A.analoguesB.tagmemesC.morphemesD.allophones

4.Theopeningbetweenthevocalcordsissometimesreferredtoas

A.glottisB.vocalcavityC.pharynxD.uvula

5.Thediphthongsthataremadewithamovementofthetonguetowardsthecenterare

knownasdiphthongs.

A.wideB.closingC.narrowD.centering

6.Aphonemeisagroupofsimilarsoundscalled.

A.minimalpairsB.allomorphsC.phonesD.allophones

7.Whichbranchofphoneticsconcernstheproductionofspeechsounds?

A.AcousticphoneticsB.Articulatoryphonetics

C.AuditoryphoneticsD.Noneoftheabove

8.Whichoneisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtoplacesofarticulation?

A.[n]B.[m]C.[b]D.[p]

9.Whichvowelisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtothecharacteristicsofvowels?

A.[i:]B.[u]C.[e]D.[i]

10.Whatkindofsoundscanwemakewhenthevocalcordsarevibrating?

A.VoicelessB.VoicedC.GlottalstopD.Consonant

II.Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)

11.Suprasegmentalphonologyreferstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslarger

thanthesegment-phoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.

12.Theairstreamprovidedbythelungshastoundergoanumberofmodificationtoacquire

thequalityofaspeechsound.

13.Twosoundsareinfreevariationwhentheyoccurinthesameenvironmentanddonot

contrast,namely,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentword,but

merelyadifferentpronunciation.

14.[p]isavoicedbilabialstop.

15.Acousticphoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.

16.Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.

17.Whenpurevowelsormonophthongsarepronounced,novowelglidestakeplace.

18.Accordingtothelengthortensenessofthepronunciation,vowelscanbedividedinto

tensevs.laxorlongvs.short.

19.ReceivedPronunciationisthepronunciationacceptedbymostpeople.

20.Themaximalonsetprinciplestatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplacea

consonant,itisputintothecodaratherthantheonset.

III.Fillintheblanks.(20%)

21.Consonantsoundscanbeeitheror,whileallvowelsoundsare

22.Consonantsoundscanalsobemadewhentwoorgansofspeechinthemoutharebrought

closetogethersothattheairispushedoutbetweenthem,causing.

23.Thequalitiesofvowelsdependuponthepositionoftheandthelips.

24.Oneelementinthedescriptionofvowelsisthepartofthetonguewhichisatthehighest

pointinthemouth.Asecondelementisthetowhichthatpartofthetongueisraised.

25.Consonantsdifferfromvowelsinthatthelatterareproducedwithout.

26.Inphonologicalanalysisthewordsfail/veilaredistinguishablesimplybecauseofthe

twophonemes/f/-/v/.Thisisanexampleforillustrating.

27.InEnglishthereareanumberof,whichareproducedbymovingfromone

vowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.

28.referstothephenomenonofsoundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheir

neighbors.

29.isthesmallestlinguisticunit.

30.Speechtakesplacewhentheorgansofspeechmovetoproducepatternsofsound.These

movementshaveaneffectonthecomingfromthelungs.

IV.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.(20%)

31.Soundassimilation

32.Suprasegmentalfeature

33.Complementarydistribution

34.Distinctivefeatures

V.Answerthefollowingquestions.(20%)

35.Whatisacousticphonetics?(中國人民大學，2003)

36.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenvoicedsoundsandvoicelesssoundsintermsof

articulation?(南開大學，2004)

VI.Analyze由efollowingsituation.(20%)

37.Writethesymbolthatcorrespondstoeachofthefollowingphoneticdescriptions;then

giveanEnglishwordthatcontainsthissound.Example:voicedalveolarstop[djdog.(青島海洋

大學，1999)

(1)voicelessbilabialunaspiratedstop

(2)lowfrontvowel

(3)lateralliquid

(4)velarnasal

(5)voicedinterdentalfricative

答案I.

1~5ACDAA6?10DBABB

IL

11-15TTTFF16-20TTTFF

III.

21.voiced,voiceless,voiced22.friction

23.tongue24.height

25.obstruction26.minimalpairs

27.diphthongs28.Co-articulation

29.Phonemes30.airstream

IV.

31.Soundassimilation:Speechsoundsseldomoccurinisolation.Inconnectedspeech,under

theinfluenceoftheirneighbors,arereplacedbyothersounds.Sometimestwoneighboringsounds

influenceeachotherandarereplacedbyathirdsoundwhichisdifferentfrombothoriginalsounds.

Thisprocessiscalledsoundassimilation.

32.Suprasegmentalfeature:Thephoneticfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments

arecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthe

syllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalonesincludesstress,intonation,

andtone.

33.Complementarydistribution:Thedifferentallophonesofthesamephonemeneveroccur

inthesamephoneticcontext.Whentwoormoreallophonesofonephonemeneveroccurinthe

samelinguisticenvironmenttheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

34.Distinctivefeatures:Itreferstothefeaturesthatcandistinguishonephonemefrom

another.Ifwecangroupthephonemesintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheother

without,thisfeatureiscalledadistinctivefeature.

V.

35.

Acousticphoneticsdealswiththetransmissionofspeechsoundsthroughtheair.Whenaspeech

soundisproduceditcausesminorairdisturbances(soundwaves).Variousinstrumentsareusedto

measurethecharacteristicsofthesesoundwaves.

36.

Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthem

unimpeded.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiceless;consonants[p,s,t]are

producedinthisway.Butwhenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungs

repeatedlypushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.Soundsproducedin

thiswayaredescribedasvoiced,[b,z,d]arevoicedconsonants.

VI.

37.

Omit.

Chapter3Lexicon

I.Choosethebestanswer.(20%)

1.Nouns,verbsandadjectivescanbeclassifiedas.

A.lexicalwordsB.grammaticalwords

C.functionwordsD.formwords

2.Morphemesthatrepresenttense,number,genderandcasearecalled

morpheme.

A.inflectionalB.freeC.boundD.derivational

3.Therearemorphemesintheworddenationalization.

A.threeB.fourC.fiveD.six

4.InEnglish-iseand-tionarecalled.

A.prefixesB.suffixesC.infixesD.stems

5.Thethreesubtypesofaffixesare:prefix,suffixand.

A.derivationalaffixB.inflectionalaffixC.infixD.back-formation

6.isawayinwhichnewwordsmaybeformedfromalreadyexistingwordsby

subtractinganaffixwhichisthoughttobepartoftheoldword.

A.affixationB.back-formationC.insertionD.addition

7.ThewordTBisformedinthewayof.

A.acronymyB.clippingC.initialismD.blending

8.Thewordslikecomsatandsitcomareformedby.

A.blendingB.clippingC.back-formationD.acronymy

9.Thestemofdisagreementsis.

A.agreementB.agreeC.disagreeD.disagreement

10.Allofthemaremeaningfulexceptfor.

A.lexemeB.phonemeC.moiphemeD.allomorph

II.Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)

11.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecond

elementreceivessecondarystress.

12.Foreasinforetellisbothaprefixandaboundmoipheme.

13.Basereferstothepartofthewordthatremainswhenallinflectionalaffixesareremoved.

14.Inmostcases,prefixeschangethemeaningofthebasewhereassuffixeschangethe

word-classofthebase.

15.Conversionfromnountoverbisthemostproductiveprocessofaword.

16.Reduplicativecompoundisformedbyrepeatingthesamemorphemeofaword.

17.Thewordswhimper,whisperandwhistleareformedinthewayofonomatopoeia.

18.Inmostcases,thenumberofsyllablesofawordcorrespondstothenumberof

morphemes.

19.Back-formationisaproductivewayofword-formations.

20.Inilectionisaparticularwayofword-formations.

III.Fillintheblanks.(20%)

21.Anispronouncedletterbyletter,whileanispronouncedasa

word.

22.Lexicon,inmostcases,issynonymouswith.

23.Orthographically,compoundsarewritteninthreeways:,and

24.Allwordsmaybesaidtocontainaroot.

25.Asmallsetofconjunctions,prepositionsandpronounsbelongtoclass,

whilethelargestpartofnouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbsbelongstoclass.

26.isareverseprocessofderivation,andthereforeisaprocessofshortening.

27.isextremelyproductive,becauseEnglishhadlostmostofitsinflectional

endingsbytheendofMiddleEnglishperiod,whichfacilitatedtheuseofwordsinterchangeably

asverbsornouns,verbsoradjectives,andviceversa.

28.Wordsaredividedintosimple,compoundandderivedwordsonthelevel.

29.Awordformedbyderivationiscalleda,andawordformedby

compoundingiscalleda.

30.Boundmorphemesareclassifiedintotwotypes:and.

IV.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.(20%)

31.Blending

32.Allomorph

33.Closed-classword

34.Morphologicalrule

V.Answerthefollowingquestions.(20%)

35.HowmanytypesofmoiphemesarethereintheEnglishlanguage?Whatarethey?(廈

門大學，2003)

36.WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?

VI.Analyzethefollowingsituation.(20%)

37.MatchthetermsunderCOLUMNIwithdieunderlinedformsfromCOLUMNII(武漢

大學，2004)

I

(1)acronyma.foe

(2)freemoiphemeb.subconscious

(3)derivationalmorphemec.UNESCO

(4)inflectionalmorphemed.overwhelmed

(5)prefixe.calculation

Key:

I.

1~5AACBB6?10BCADB

II.

11-15FTFTT16?20FTFFF

III.

21.initialism,acronym22.vocabulary

23.solid,hyphenated,open24.morpheme

25.close,open26.back-formation

27.conversion28.morpheme

29.derivative,compound30.affix,boundroot

IV.

31.Blending:Itisaprocessofword-formationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombining

themeaningsandsoundsoftwowords,oneofwhichisnotinitsfullformorbothofwhichare

notintheirfullforms,likenewscast(news+broadcast),brunch(breakfast+lunch)

32.Allomorph:Itisanyofthevariantformsofamorphemeasconditionedbypositionor

adjoiningsounds.

33.Close-classword:Itisawordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Pronouns,

prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.areallclosed-classwords.

34.Morphologicalrule:Itistherulethatgovernswhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeof

basetoformanewword,e.g.-lycanbeaddedtoanountoformanadjective.

V.

Omit.

VI.

37.

(l)c(2)a⑶e(4)d(5)b

Chapter4Syntax

I.Choosethebestanswer.(20%)

1.Thesentencestructureis.

A.onlylinearB.onlyhierarchical

C.complexD.bothlinearandhierarchical

2.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguageareinnumber.

A.largeB.smallC.finiteD.infinite

3.Therulesaretherulesthatgroupwordsandphrasestoformgrammatical

sentences.

A.lexicalB.morphologicalC.linguisticD.combinational

4.Asentenceisconsideredwhenitdoesnotconformtothegrammaticalknowledgein

themindofnativespeakers.

A.rightB.wrongC.grammaticalD.ungrammatical

5.Aintheembeddedclausereferstotheintroductorywordthatintroducesthe

embeddedclause.

A.coordinatorB.particleC.prepositionD.subordinator

6.Phrasestructureruleshaveproperties.

A.recursiveB.grammaticalC.socialD.functional

7.Phrasestructurerulesallowustobetterunderstand.

A.howwordsandphrasesformsentences.

B.whatconstitutesthegrammaticalityofstringsofwords

C.howpeopleproduceandrecognizepossiblesentences

D.alloftheabove.

8.Theheadofthephrase“thecityRome^^is.

A.thecityB.RomeC.cityD.thecityRome

9.Thephrase“ontheshelfbelongstoconstruction.

A.endocentricB.exocentricC.subordinateD.coordinate

10.Thesentence“Theywerewantedtoremainquietandnottoexposethemselves.^^isa

sentence.

A.simpleB.coordinateC.compoundD.complex

II.Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.(10%)

11.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulesthatcomprisethe

systemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerareknownaslinguistic

competence.

12.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,butthereisnolimittothenumber

ofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.

13.Inacomplexsentence,thetwoclausesholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.

14.Constituentsthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongto

thesamesyntacticcategory.

15.Minorlexicalcategoriesareopenbecausethesecategoriesarenotfixedandnewmembers

areallowedfor.

16.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedand

discussed,namely,nounphrase,verbphrase,infinitivephrase,andauxiliaryphrase.

17.InEnglishthesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowsthe

verb.

18.Whatisactuallyinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisacompletelistofwordsand

phrasesratherthangrammaticalknowledge.

19.Anounphrasemustcontainanoun,butotherelementsareoptional.

20.Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentences

atthelevelofD-structure.

III.Fillintheblanks.(20%)

21.Asentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicate

andstandsaloneasitsownsentence.

22.Aisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordsto

formacompletestatement,questionorcommand.

23.Amaybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthe

predicate.

24.Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsays

somethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalled.

25.Asentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintothe

other.

26.Inthecomplexsentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledan

clause.

27.Majorlexicalcategoriesarecategoriesinthesensethatnewwordsare

constantlyadded.

28.conditiononcaseassignmentstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipient

shouldstayadjacenttoeachother.

29.aresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinone

wayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamong

naturallanguages.

30.Thetheoryofconditionexplainsthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyin

subjectandobjectpositions.

IV.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.(20%)

31.Syntax

32.ICanalysis

33.Hierarchicalstructure

34.Tracetheory

V.Answerthefollowingquestions.(20%)

35.Whatareendocentricconstructionandexocentricconstruction?(武漢大學，2004)

36.Distinguishthetwopossiblemeaningsof“morebeautifulflowers^^bymeansofICanalysis.

(北京第二外國語大學，2004)

VI.Analyzethefollowingsituation.(20%)

37.DrawatreediagramaccordingtothePSrulestoshowthedeepstructureofthesentence:

Thestudentwrotealetteryesterday.

Key:

I.

1~5DCDDD6~10ADDBA

IL

11-15TTTTF16?20FTFTT

III.

21.simple22.sentence

23.subject24.predicate

25.complex26.embedded

27.open28.Adjacency

29.Parameters30.Case

IV.

31.Syntax:Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentences

inalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

32.ICanalysis:Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofa

sentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents-wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturn

analyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimate

sakeofconvenience.

33.Hierarchicalstructure:Itisthesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructural

constituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNP,VPandPP.

34.Tracetheory:Afterthemovementofanelementinasentencetherewillbeatraceleftinthe

originalposition.Thisisthenotiontracein「Ggrammar.It\suggestedthatifwehavethenotion

trace,allthenecessaryinformationforsemanticinterpretationmaycomefromthesurface

structure.E.g.ThepassiveDamsarebuiltbybeavers,differsfromtheactiveBeaversbuiltdams,

inimplyingthatalldamsarebuiltbybeavers.Ifweaddatraceelementrepresentedbythelettert

afterbuiltinthepassiveas