Chapter1Whatislanguage?

[A]Theoriginsoflanguage

Somespeculationsoftheoriginsoflanguage:

①Thedivinesource

Thebasichypothesis:ifinfantswereallowedtogrowupwithout

hearinganylanguage,thentheywouldspontaneouslybeginusing

theoriginalgod-givenlanguage.

Actually,childrenlivingwithoutaccesstohumanspeechintheir

earlyyearsgrowupwithnolanguageatall.

②Thenatural-soundsource

Thebow-wowtheory:thesuggestionisthatprimitivewordscould

havebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenand

womenheardaroundthem.

The“Yo-heave-ho“theory:thesoundsproducedbyhumanswhen

exertingphysicaleffort,especiallywhenco-operatingwithother

humans,maybetheoriginsofspeechsounds.

Onomatopoeicsounds

③Theoral-gesturesource

Itisclaimedthatoriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdeveloped

asameansofcommunication.

Thepatternsofmovementinarticulationwouldbethesameas

gesturalmovement;hencewavingtonguewoulddevelopfrom

wavinghand.

④Glossogenetics(言語遺傳學(xué))

Thisfocusesmainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationand

developmentofhumanlanguage.

Physiologicaladaptationadevelopnamingabilityainteractionsand

transactions

Physicaladaptation:

Humanteethareuprightandroughlyeveninheight.

Humanlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemvery

flexible.

Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue.

Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthe

pharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepieces

offood,butmakingthesoundspeechpossible.

Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyticfunctions(tool-using

andlanguage)arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrain

formosthumans.

Twomajorfunctionsoflanguage:

Interactional:asocialfunctionoflanguage.

Transactional:afunctioninvolvingthecommunicationof

knowledgeandinformation

[B]Thepropertiesoflanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhuman

communication.

a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules

b)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthe

thingintheworldwhichitrefersto

c)Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages

d)Human:languageishuman-specific(交際性與信息性)

Communicativevs.Informative:

Communicative:intentionallyusinglanguagetocommunicate

something

Informative:through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenot

intentionallysent

Designfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesof

humanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemof

communication

①Displacement(跨時空性，移位性)

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromthe

immediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeand

tootherlocations)

②Arbitrariness(任意性)

Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform

(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.

Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.

a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords

b)somecompoundwords

③Productivity(能產(chǎn)性,創(chuàng)造性)

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionand

interpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityor

open-endedness)

④Culturaltransition(文化傳遞性)

Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyone

wasbomwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofany

languagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhaveto

betaughtandlearnt.

⑤Discreteness(可分離性)

Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.

⑥D(zhuǎn)uality(雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性)

Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.The

lowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.

Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)

Theabovesixpropertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhuman

language.

Vocal-auditorychannel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,

orrapidfade,thesepropertiesarebesttreatedaswaysofdescribing

humanlanguage,butnotasameansofdistinguishingitfromother

systemsofcommunication.

[C]Thedevelopmentofwrittenlanguage

①pictograms&ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）

Pictogram:whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticular

imagesinaconsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasa

formofpicture-writing,orpictograms.

Ideogram:thepicturedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedother

thanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,or

ideogram

Hieroglyph:古埃及象形文字

②Logograms（語標(biāo)書寫法）

Whensymbolscometobeusedtorepresentwordsinalanguage,

theyaredescribedasexamplesofword-writing,orlogograms.

“Arbitrariness^^一awritingsystemwhichwasword-basedhad

comeintoexistence.

Cuneiform--楔形文字一theSumerians（5000and6000yearsago）

Chineseisoneexampleofitsmodernwritingsystem.

Advantages:twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewriting

system.

Disadvantages:vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms.

③Syllabicwriting（音節(jié)書寫法）

Whenawritingsystememploysasetofsymbolswhichrepresent

thepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting.

ThePhoenicians:thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofa

syllabicwritingsystem(ca1000BC)

(4)Alphabeticwriting(字母書寫法)

Semiticlanguages(ArabicandHebrew):firstappliedthisrule

TheGreeks:takingtheinherentlysyllabicsystemfromthe

PhoeniciansviatheRomans

LatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet(Slaviclanguages)

⑤Rebuswriting

Robuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforan

entitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedfor

thatentity.

Chapter2Whatislinguistics?

[A]Thedefinitionoflinguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

Processoflinguisticstudy:

①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;

②Hypothesesareformulated;

(3)Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;

(4)Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhuman

communication.

[B]Thescopeoflinguistics

Generallinguistics:thestudyoflanguageasawhole

Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds

(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeech

soundsareproducedandclassified)

Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatterns

ofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsand

functiontoconveymeaning)

Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearranged

toformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)

Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationof

wordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwords

arecombinedtoformsentences)

Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction

Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse

Sociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety

Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetothe

workingsofthemind

Appliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesand

theoriestolanguageteachingandlearning

Anthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematical

linguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics

[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive

②Synchronicvs.Diachronic

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;

Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.

③Speechandwriting

Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten

④Langueandparole

ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)

Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthe

membersofaspeechcommunity

Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse

⑤Competenceandperformance

ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)

Competence:theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

Chapter3Phoneticsandphonology

[A]Thedefinitionofphonetics

Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itis

concernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,or

articulated.

Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechas

soundwavesintheair.

Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viathe

ear,ofspeechsounds.

Forensicphonetics:hasanapplicationinlegalcasesinvolving

speakeridentificationandtheanalysisofrecordedutterances.

[B]Organsofspeech

Voiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthe

lungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.

Voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthe

lungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatinga

vibrationeffect.

AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced(voicing).

Theimportantcavities:

Thepharyngealcavity

Theoralcavity

Thenasalcavity

Lips,teeth,teethridge(alveolus),hardpalate,softpalate(velum),

uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backoftongue,vocalcords

[C]Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds

Broadandnarrowtranscriptions

IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association)

Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly

Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacritics

E.g.:

aaclear[1](nodiacritic)

[l]a[bild]-aadark[1](~)

[l]a[helW]-aadental[1]()

[p]a[pit]—aanaspirated[ph](h)

[p]a[spit]—aanunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)

[n]a[5bQtn]aasyllabicnasal[n](7)

[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

Intermsofmannerofarticulation(themannerinwhichobstruction

iscreated)

①Stops:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoing

abruptly

[p]/,[t]/[d],[k]/[g]

②Fricatives:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthrough

anarrowpassageinthemonth

[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant)

(3)Affricates:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyas

infricatives

[tF]/[dV]

④Liquids:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescape

throughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroof

ofthemouth

[l]aalateralsound;[r]aretroflex

⑤Glides:[w],fj](semi-vowels)

Liquid+glides+[h]aapproximants

⑥Nasals:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalateto

letairpassthroughit

[m],[],[]

Byplaceofarticulation(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)

①bilabials:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreate

obstructions

[p]/,[w]a(velar)

②labiodentals:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth

田/[v]

③dentals:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth

[W]/[T]

④alveolars:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge

[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[1],[r]

⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars):tongueandtheveryfrontofthe

palate,nearthealveolarridge

[F]/[V],[t]/[d]

⑥palatal:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate

UI

⑦velars:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum

[k],[g],[N]...[w]

⑧glottals:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthe

larynx

[h]

[E]ClassificationofEnglishvowels

Front

i:CentralBack

Closei

u:

u

Semi-closeeE:

Semi-openEC:

OpenA

BQR

B:

①Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back;

②Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open;

③Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):

Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[B]

Allthebackvowels,except[A:]areroundedvowels

(4)Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowels

Larynxa(tense)or(lax)

Monophthongs,diphthongs

Cardinalvowels

[F]Thedefinitionofphonology

Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhuman

languages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,

whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.

Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsounds

ofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsina

languageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconvey

meaninginlinguisticcommunication.

[G]Phone,phoneme,andallophone

Phone:thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit-phoneme

Phoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedin

slashmarks

Allophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofone

phoneme

[G]Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimal

pair

Phonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesame

environmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they'rein

phonemiccontrast.

E.g.pin&bina/p/vs./b/rope&robea/p/vs.Pol

Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthe

samephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecause

theycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferent

environment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.

Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineveryway

exceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthe

strings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromthe

others,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),then

allofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.

[H]Somerulesinphonology

①sequentialrules

Syllable

Onsetrime

Nucleuscoda

[Consonant]vowel[consonant(s)]

Phonotacticsof3Csoccurringinonset:

Nol:

__/s/

voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/

approximants:/r/,/I/,/w/,4/

No2:

Theaffricates[tF]/[dV]andthesibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]arenotto

befollowedbyanothersibilants.

②assimilationrules

Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostat

thesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.

Assimilation&elisioneffects

Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectof

onephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheother

E.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.

③deletionrule-Elision

Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresent

indeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolation

E.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant

[I]Suprasegmentalfeatures

①Stress

Wordstress&sentencestress

ThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement

②Tone

Definition:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythe

differingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.

Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.

Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.

Level,rise,fall-rise,fall

③Intonation

Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentencerather

thanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.

English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones

Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-fall

tone

Chapter4Morphology

[A]Thedefinitionofmorphology

Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternal

structureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

Inflectionalmorphology

Derivationalmorphology(lexicalmorphology)

Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulcomponentsofwords

(Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction)

[B]Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes

Freemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewords

aLexicalmorphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes

[n.]

Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhichare

typicallyattachedtoanotherform

aDerivationalmorphemes——aaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+root

aInflectionalmorphemesa8

8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglish

Noun+-?s,-s[possessive;plural]

Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular;present

participle;pasttense,pastparticiple]

Adj+-er,-est[comparative;superlative]

[C]Derivationalvs.inflectional

Inflectionalmoiphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofa

word

Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory;

Derivationalmorphemesareopposite

Order:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional

[D]MorphologicalRules

N.+lyaa.;A.+lyaadv.;guardovergeneralization

[E]Morphsandallomorphs

Morphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes

Allomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofone

morpheme,werefertothemasallomorphsofthatmorpheme.

[F]Word-formationprocess

①Coinageatheinventionoftotallynewterms

②Borrowingathetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguages

Loan-translation(Claque)aadirecttranslationoftheelementsofa

wordintotheborrowinglanguage

Standalonetobetheoppositeofword-formation

③Compoundingaajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproducea

singleform

Featuresofcompounds

a)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,

withorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.

b)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerally

determinedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.

c)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,

notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents.

d)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirst

element,

Whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.

(4)Blendingatakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningit

totheendofotherword

⑤Clippingaawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorter

form

⑥Backformationaaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedby

takingawaythesuffixofanexistingword

Hypocorismsaclippingor+ie

⑦Conversionacategorychange,functionalshift

⑧Acronymsanewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofa

setofotherwords

⑨Derivationathenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixes

totheroots,stems,orwords

⑩Abbreviationaashortenedformofawordorphrasewhich

representsthecompleteform

Analogy

Chapter5Grammar

[A]Typesofgrammar

Thestudyofgrammar,orthestudyofthestructureofexpressionsin

alanguage,hasaverylongtradition.

①Mentalgrammar:aformofinternallinguisticknowledgewhich

operatesintheproductionandrecognitionofappropriately

structuredexpressionsinthatlanguage,aPsychologist

②Linguisticetiquette:theidentificationoftheproperorbest

structurestobeusedinalanguage,aSociologist

③Thestudyandanalysisofthestructuresfoundinalanguage,

withtheaimofestablishingadescriptionofthegrammarofEnglish,

e.g.asdistinctfromthegrammarofRussiaorFrench,aLinguist

[B]Thepartsofspeech

Nouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,

conjunctions

athegrammaticalcategoriesofwordsinsentences

[C]Traditionalgrammar(Categoriesandanalysis)

Othercategories:number,person,tense,voiceandgender

Agreement:

EnglishlanguageBnaturalgender

GrammaticalgenderaFrench

[D]Typesofgrammarconcerninganalysis

Theprescriptiveapproach:Theviewofgrammarasasetofrulesfor

theproperuseofalanguage

Thedescriptiveapproach:analystscollectsamplesofthelanguage

theyareinterestedinandattempttodescribetheregularstructuresof

thelanguageatitisused,notaccordingtosomeviewofhowit

shouldbeused.

[E]Structuralandimmediateconstituentanalysis(ICAnalysis)

Structuralanalysis:toinvestigatethedistinctionofforms(e.g.

morphemes)inalanguage

ICAnalysis:howsmallconstituents(Components)insentencesgo

togethertoformlargerconstituents

[F]Labeledandbracketedsentences

Hierarchicalorganizationoftheconstituentsinasentence

LabeleachconstituentwithgrammaticaltermssuchasArt.N.NP

Chapter6Syntax

[A]Thedefinitionofsyntax

Asubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureof

language

[B]Thebasiccomponentsofasentence

Sentence

SubjectPredicate

Referringexpressioncomprisesfiniteverboraverb

phraseandsayssomethingaboutthesubject

[C]Typesofsentences

Simplesentence:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubject

andapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.

Coordinate(Compound)sentence:containstwoclausesjoinedbya

linkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and"，“by”,

“or”…

Complexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichis

incorporatedintotheother

EmbeddedclauseBamatrixclause

①subordinator②functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybe

complete

[D]Thelinearandhierarchicalstructuresofsentences

Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthe

sentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence,which

suggeststhestructureofasentenceislinear.

Butthesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoes

notentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearly-structured;sentencesare

organizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasNPor

VP,groupedtogether.

Treediagramofconstituentstructure

Bracketsandsubscriptlabels

[E]Somecategories

Syntacticcategories:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsa

particulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate

Lexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)

Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):

N.V.Adj.Adv.

Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):

Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.

Phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP

[F]GrammaticalRelations

Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituents

Itconcernsthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestothe

verb

Subjectofanddirectobjectof

Structuralsubject,structuralobject

Logicalsubject(thedoeroftheaction),thelogicalobject(the

recipientoftheaction)

Thesetwogroupsofsubjectsandobjectsmayhavedifferent

positions

[G]Combinationalrules

AresmallinnumberaYieldallthepossiblesentences

Ruleouttheimpossibleones

①phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)

SaNPVP

(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverb

phrase)

NPa(Det.)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)

Anoptionaldeterminerandobligatorynoun,

VPaV(NP)(POP)(S)

APaA(PP)(S)

PPaPNP

②the

ofphrasestructurerules

Significantly,theaboverulescangenerateaninfinitenumberof

sentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursive

properties.

③X-bartheory

Headaanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsname

XPorX-phrase

XPa(Specifier)X(complement)

Formula:

X*SpecX'

X-bartheory(X-barschema)

X5aXcompl

Treediagram

X”

SpecifierX'

Xcomplement

[H]Syntacticmovementandmovementrules

Syntacticmovement:occurswhenaconstituentinasentencemoves

outofitsoriginalplacetoanewplace

Transformationalrules

①NP-movementandWH-movement

NP-movement:activevoiceapassivevoice

Postposing,preposing

WH-movement:affirmativeainterrogative

Leftwardmattertothesentenceinitial-position

②Othertypesofmovement

Aux-movement:themovementofanauxiliarytothesentence-initial

position

③D-structureandS-structure

Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:

Onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace

Theotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace

Formallinguisticexploration:

D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexicon

SentenceatthelevelofD-structure

Theapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentence

from

D-structureleveltoS-structurelevel

Transformational-generativelineofanalysis

④Movea-ageneralmovementrule

Moveanyconstituenttoanyplace

Certainconstituentscanmovetoonlycertainpositions

[I]UniversalGrammar(UG)

Principles-and-parameterstheory:

UGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahuman

species-specificgiftwhichexitsinthemindorbrainofanormal

humanbeingandwhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesand

parametersaboutnaturallanguages.

①generalprinciplesofUG

Caseconditionprinciple:anounphrasemusthavecaseandcaseis

assignedbyVorPtotheobjectpositionorbyAuxtothesubject

position

AdjacencyconditionorCaseassignment:acaseassignorandacase

recipientshouldstayadjacencytoeachother.

ItisstrictlyobservedinEnglishwell-formedsentences,notother

languages(nootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverb

anditsdirectobject)

TheAdjacencyconditionmustbesubjecttoparametricvariationin

ordertoexplaintheapparentadjacencyviolationssuchasinFrench.

②TheparametersofUG

ParametersaresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciples

tooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificant

linguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.

[+strictadjacency]

Adjacencyparameter

[-strictadjacency]

[Rightwarddirectionality]

TheDirectionalityParameterainvolveswordorder

[Leftwarddirectionality]

En:VPwordorderVPaVNP

Jp:VPwordorderVPaNPV

Naturallanguagesareviewedtovaryaccordingtoparametersseton

UGprinciplestoparticularvalues.

Chapter7Semantics

[A]Thedefinitionofsemantics

Definition:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview

[B]Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning

①thenamingtheory:Thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inother

words,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsofthe

objectstheystandfor;wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.

②theconceptualistview:There'snodirectlinkbetweena

linguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandthe

realworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinked

throughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.

Thought/referenceaconcept

Symbol/Form(words)Referent

a(realobject)

ProposedbyOgden&Richards

③contextualism:JohnFirth

Thesituationalcontext:inaparticularspatiotemporalsituation

Linguisticcontext(co-text):theprobabilityofaword's

co-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword

(4)behaviorismaBloomfieldbasedoncontextualistview

Behavioristsdefinemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationin

whichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthe

hearer

S:stimulusr:response

JillJack

SrsR

(thesmalllettersr,saspeech)(thecapitalizedletterR,Sapractical

events)

[C]Senseandreference

Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,

abstractandde-contextualized.

Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,

physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguistic

elementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience

MovingstarIoncewasbittenbyadog.

MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.

[D]Majorsenserelations

①synonymyathesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning

a.dialectalsynonymssynonymsusedindifferentregional

dialects

b.stylisticsynonymssynonymsdifferinginstyle

c.synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning

d.collocationalsynonyms

e.semanti