EnglishfbrMedical

Professionals

醫(yī)

學(xué)

專

業(yè)

英

語

Content

Humanbody...........................................................................................................................................1

Humandisease........................................................................................................................................5

Medicine..................................................................................................................................................9

Cardiovascularsystem.........................................................................................................................16

Respiratorysystem...............................................................................................................................19

Musculoskeletalsystem.......................................................................................................................22

DigestiveSystem...................................................................................................................................25

BloodandImmunity...........................................................................................................................29

UrinarySystem.....................................................................................................................................32

Nervoussystem.....................................................................................................................................36

EndocrineSystem................................................................................................................................40

Cancer...................................................................................................................................................43

Apoptosis...............................................................................................................................................48

DNACloning:anoverview.................................................................................................................51

ProteinTargeting..................................................................................................................................55

StemCells..............................................................................................................................................59

DevelopmentandGenetics.................................................................................................................61

MolecularStructureofNucleicAcids...............................................................................................64

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals1

Humanbody

Alllivingthingsareorganizedfromverysimplelevelstomorecomplexlevels.

Livingmatterisderivedfromsimplechemicals.Thesechemicalsarefannedintothe

complexsubstancesthatmakelivingcells-thebasicunitsofalllife.Specialized

groupsofcellsformtissues,andtissuesmayfunctiontogetherasorgans.Organs

workingtogetherforthesamegeneralpurposemakeupthebodysystems.Allofthe

organism生物體，有機體

systemsworktogethertomaintainthebodyasawholeorganism.

Studiesofthenormalstructureandfunctionsofthebodyarethebasisforall

anatomy[o'n史匕mi]解剖學(xué)

physiology生理學(xué)medicalsciences.Itisonlyfromunderstandingthenormalthatonecananalyzewhat

biology生物學(xué)

isgoingwrongincasesofdisease.Thesestudiesgiveoneanappreciationforthe

cytology細胞學(xué)

embryology胚胎學(xué)designandbalanceofthehumanbodyandforlivingorganismsingeneral.Anatomy

histology組織學(xué)

endocrinology內(nèi)分泌學(xué)isthestudyofthebody'sstructure;physiologyisthestudyofthebody'sfunction.

hematology血液學(xué)Otherstudiesofhumanbodyincludebiology,cytology,embryology,histology,

immunology免疫學(xué)

psychology心理學(xué)endocrinology,hematology,immunology,psychologyetc.

Anatomistsfinditusefultodividethehumanbodyintotensystems,The

principalpartsofeachofthesesystemsaredescribedinthisarticle.

Theskeletalsystemismadeofbones,jointsbetweenbones,andcartilage.Its

skeletal骨骼的

functionistoprovidesupportandprotectionfbrthesofttissuesandtheorgansofthe

bodyandtoprovidepointsofattachmentfbrthemusclesthatmovethebody.There

are206bonesinthehumanskeleton.Manyofthelongboneshaveaninteriorspace

thatisfilledwithbonemarrow,wherebloodcellsarcmade.

Ajointiswherebonesarejoinedtogether.Theconnectioncanbesoclosethatno

joint關(guān)節(jié)movementispossible,asisthecaseintheskull.Otherkindsofjointspermit

cartilage軟骨

skeleton骨骼m(xù)ovement:eitherbackandforthinoneplane-aswiththehingejointoftheelbow-

bonemarrow骨髓ormovementaroundasingleaxis-aswiththepivotjointthatpermitstheheadto

hingejoint屈戌關(guān)節(jié)

pivotjoint樞軸關(guān)節(jié)rotate.Awiderangeofmovementispossiblewhentheball-shapedendofonebone

socket臼槽

fitsintoasocketattheendofanotherbone,astheydointheshoulderandhipjoints.

Cartilageisamoreflexiblematerialthanbone.Itservesasaprotective,

rib肋骨cushioninglayerwherebonescometogether.Italsoconnectstheribstothe

胸骨

breastbonebreastboneandprovidesastructuralbasefbrthenoseandtheexternalear.

Themuscularsystemallowsthebodytomove,anditscontractionsproduce

muscular肌肉的

striatedmuscle橫紋肌heat,whichhelpsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.Striatedmusclescanbe

consciouslycontrolled.Theendsofthesemusclesareattachedtodifferentbonesby

connectivetissuebandssothatwhenthemusclecontracts,onebonemovesinrelation

totheother.Thismakesitpossibletomovethewholebody,aswhenwalking,orto

movejustonepartofthebody,aswhenbendingafinger.

Contractionsoftheheartandsmoothmusclesarenotunderconsciouscontrol.

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals2

smoothmuscle平滑肌Smoothmusclesarefoundinthewallsoforganssuchasthestomachandthe

intestine腸

intestinesandservetomovethecontentsoftheseorgansthroughthebody.

ThecirculatorysystemAllpartsofthebodymusthavenourishmentand

circulatory循環(huán)的

nourishment營養(yǎng)oxygeninordertofunctionandgrow,andtheirwasteproductsmustberemoved

bloodvessel血管

beforetheyaccumulateandpoisonthebody.Thecirculatorysystemdistributes

cardiovascular心血管的

antibody抗體neededmaterialsandremovesunneededones.Itismadeupoftheheart,blood

vessels,andblood,whichtogethermakeupthecardiovascularsystem.Thebloodis

alsopartofthebody'sdefensesystem.Ithasantibodiesandwhitebloodcellsthat

protectthebodyagainstforeigninvaders.

Theheartisamusclethatisdividedintotwonearlyidenticalhalves:onehalf

artery動脈

receivesbloodfromthelungsandsendsittotherestofthebody,theotherhalfsends

capillary毛細血管

vein靜脈bloodthathastraveledthroughthebodybacktothelungs.Whentheheartmuscle

contracts,thebloodisforcedoutintoarteriesandenterssmallcapillaries.Blood

returnstotheheartthroughveins.

Alsofunctioningincirculationisthelymphaticsystem.Someofthefluidthat

lymphatic淋巴的

lymph淋巴surroundscellsdoesnotreenterthebloodvesselsdirectly.Thisfluid,calledlymph,

lymphnode淋巴結(jié)

returnstotheheartbywayofanothersystemofchannels-thelymphvessels.Lymph

spleen脾

nodesalongthesevesselsfilterthefluidbeforeitreenterstheblood.Thespleenisa

largelymphaticorganthatfilterstheblood.

Therespiratorysystemtakesinoxygenfromtheairandexpelscarbondioxide

respiratory呼吸的andwatervapor.Airentersthenoseandmouthandtravelsthroughthelarynx,and

carbondioxide二氧化碳

larynx喉管trachea.Thetracheadividestoentereachofthetwolungsandthendividesmorethan

trachea[tro'kia]氣管20timestoformaverylargenumberofsmallairspaces.Oxygenfromtheairenters

exhale呼出

thebloodthroughcapillariesinthewallsoftheseairspaces,andthebloodrelease

carbondioxideintotheairspacestobeexhaled.

Thedigestivesystemconsistsofatubeextendingfromthemouthtotheanus.

digestive消化的Foodentersthroughthemouth,wherechewingandsalivastarttobreakitupand

anus肛門

saliva[so'laivo]唾液makeiteasiertoswallow.Next,thefoodtravelsdownthroughtheesophagustothe

esophagus食管stomach,wheremechanicalandchemicaldigestioncontinues,themuscularwallsof

gastricjuice胃液

chyme食糜thestomachcontractvigorouslytomixfoodwithgastricjuice,producingamixture

calledchyme.

Theliquifiedfoodgraduallypassesintothesmallintestine.Intheduodenum(the

firstpartofthesmallintestine),enzymesfromthepancreasareadded.Theseenzymes

duodenum十二指腸

completethechemicalbreakdownofthefood.Thedigestionoffatisaidedbybile,

pancreas胰腺

enzyme酶whichismadeintheliverandstoredinthegallbladder.Thesmallintestineofan

breakdown分解

nutrient營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)adultisabout6.4meterslong,mostofitslengthisdevotedtoabsorbingthenutrients

releasedduringthesedigestiveactivities.

remainder剩余物Theliquidremainderofthefoodentersthelargeintestine,orcolon,whichis

colon結(jié)腸

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals3

expel排除about3.7meterslong.Itismorethantwiceaswideasthesmallintestine.Inthelarge

residue殘余物

intestinemostofthefluidisabsorbed,andtherelativelydryresiduesareexpelled.

的Theurinarysystemmaintainsnormallevelsofwaterandofcertainsmall

鈉moleculessuchassodiumandpotassiuminthebody.Itdoesthisbypassingblood

鉀

腎throughthekidneys,twoefficientfilteringorgansthatgetridofanyexcessofvarious

kidn

液

尿

管moleculesandconservethosemoleculesthatareinshortsupply.

尿

胱

膀Thefluidthatleavesthekidneys,knownasurine,travelsthroughatubecalled

空

排

道

尿theuretertothebladder.Thebladderholdstheurineuntilitisvoidedfromthebody

hra

throughanothertube,theurethra.

分

泌Theendocrinesystem.Thetwosystemsthatcontrolbodyactivitiesarethe

endocrinev

信

使

messengerendocrinesystemandthenervoussystem.Theformerexertsitscontrolbymeansof

激

素

體

hormone腺

T

haIdchemicalmessengerscalledhonnones.Hormonesareproducedbyavarietyof

endocrineglands,whichreleasethehormonesdirectlyintothebloodstream.

Amajorglandisthepituitary,whichislocatedunderthebraininthemiddleof

pituitary腦垂體

thehead.Itproducesatleasteighthormones,whichaffectgrowth,kidneyfunction,

thyroid甲狀腺

adrenal腎上腺的anddevelopmentofthesexorgans.Becausesomeofthepituitary'shormones

stimulateotherglandstoproducetheirownhormones,thepituitarycalledthemaster

gland.Othersendocrineglandsarethethyroid,thepancreasandtheadrenalglands.

Thenervoussystem.Thebrain,thespinalcordandthenerve-alsocontrols

nervous神經(jīng)的bodyactivities.Thelowerpartsofthebraincontrolbasicfunctionssuchasbreathing

spinalcord脊髓

andheartrateaswellasbodytemperature,hunger,andthirst.Abovetheseregionsare

thecentersforsight,sound,touch,smell,andtaste,andtheregionsthatdirect

voluntarymuscularactivitiesofthearmsandlegs.Performedherearethehigher

functionsofintegratingandprocessinginformation.

Thebrainreceivesandsendsinformationbymeansofnerves,manyofwhichlie

partlyinthespinalcord.Thespinalcordisprotectedbythespinalcolumn.Nerves

integrate整合

spinalcolumn脊柱enterandleavethespinalcordateachlevelofthebody,travelingtoandfromthe

arms,legs,andtrunk.Thesenervesbringinformationfromthevarioussenseorgans,

andtheinformationisprocessedbythebrain,thenmessagesarecarriedbackto

musclesandglandsthroughoutthebody.

Thereproductivesystemisconstructeddifferentlyformalesandfemales.The

生殖的

reproductivemalereproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducing,transportingandmaintaining

viable能存活的

sperm精子viablesperm.Italsoproducesthemalesexhormone,whichregulatesthe

developmentofbodilycharacteristicsoftheadultmale.

Thefemaleproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducingandtransportingova,

eliminatingovafromthebodywhentheyarenotfertilizedbysperm,nourishingand

ovum(pl.ova)卵子

ovary卵巢providingaplaceforgrowthofanembryowhenanovumisfertilizedbysperm,and

nourishinganewbornchild.Thefemalereproductivesystemalsoproducesthefemale

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals4

sexhormones,whichregulatethedevelopmentofbreastsandotherbodily

characteristicsofthematurefemale.

Theskinisacompletelayerthatprotectstheinnerstructuresofthebody,andit

isthelargestofthebody*sorgans.Itkeepsoutforeignsubstancesandprevents

evaporation蒸發(fā)

tactile觸覺的excessivewaterevaporation.Thenervesintheskinprovidetactileinformation.The

skinalsohelpskeepthebody'stemperaturecloseto37°C,heatisconservedby

reducingbloodflowthroughtheskinorisexpendedbyincreasingbloodflowandby

evaporationofsweatfromtheskin.

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals5

Humandisease

Thebriefsurveyofthehumanbodyhasgivenusaglimpseintotwodifferent

studiesthatareconsideredthefimdamcntalsofmedicalsciences,namelyanatomyand

pathology病理學(xué)physiology.However,thepictureisnotcompletewithoutconsideringpathology,the

sciencethatdealswiththestructuralandfunctionalchangesproducedbythedisease.

Infact,themodemapproachtothestudyofdisorderemphasizestheclose

relationshipofthepathologicalandphysiologicalaspectsandtheneedtounderstand

thefundamentalsofeachintreatinganybodydiseases.

Thenwhatisadisease?Itmaybedefinedasaconditionthatimpairstheproper

succumbto屈從于，死于functionofthebodyorofoneofitsparts.Everylivingthing,bothplantsandanimals,

bacterium(pl.bacteria)細菌

cansuccumbtodisease.People,forexample,areofteninfectedbytinybacteria,but

virus病毒

bacteria,inturn,canbeinfectedbyevenmoreminuteviruses.

癥狀

symptomHundredsofdifferentdiseasesexist.Eachhasitsownparticularsetofsymptoms

體

征

sign

診

斷andsigns,cluesthatenableaphysiciantodiagnosetheproblem.Asymptomis

diagnose

發(fā)

熱somethingapatientcandetect,suchasfever,bleeding,orpain.Asignissomethinga

fever出

血

大

bleeding的

doctorcandetect,suchasaswollenbloodvesseloranenlargedinternalbodyorgan.

swollen刖

Diseasescanbeclassifieddifferently.Forinstance,anepidemicdiseaseisone

epidemicdisease流行病

endemicdisease地方病thatstrikesmanypersonsinacommunity.Whenitstrikesthesameregionyearafter

acute急性的yearitisanendemicdisease.Anacutediseasehasaquickonsetandrunsashort

subacute亞急性的

chronic慢性的course.Anacuteheartattack,forexample,oftenhitswithoutwarningandcanbe

onset發(fā)作quicklyfatal.Achronicdiseasehasaslowonsetandrunsasometimesyears-long

rheumaticfever風(fēng)濕熱

course.Thegradualonsetandlongcourseofrheumaticfevermakesitachronic

ailment.Betweentheacuteandchronic,anothertypeiscalledsubacute.

Diseasescanalsobeclassifiedbytheircausativeagents.Forinstance,an

infectious傳染性的

airborne空氣傳播的infectious,orcommunicable,diseaseistheonethatcanbepassedbetweenpersons

fungus(pl.fungi)真菌

suchasbymeansofairbornedropletsfromacoughorsneeze.Tinyorganismssuchas

worm蠕蟲

asymptomatic無癥狀的bacteriaandfungicanproduceinfectiousdiseases.Socanviruses.Socantinyworms.

carrier攜帶者

Whateverthecausativeagentmightbe,itsurvivesinthepersonitinfectsandis

passedontoanother.Sometimes,adisease-producingorganismgetsintoaperson

whoshowsnosymptomsofthedisease.Theasymptomaticcarriercanthenpassthe

diseaseontosomeoneelsewithoutevenknowinghehasit.

malfunction機能障礙Noninfectiousdiseasesarecausedbymalfunctionsofthebody.Theseinclude

degeneration退化organortissuedegeneration,erraticcellgrowth,andfaultybloodformationandflow.

erratic游走的，不穩(wěn)定的

faulty錯誤的，缺陷的Alsoincludedaredisturbancesofthestomachandintestine,theendocrinesystem,

disturbance功能紊亂andtheurinaryandreproductivesystems.Somediseasescanbecausedbydiet

deficiency缺乏，不足

lapse衰退，障礙deficiencies,lapsesinthebody'sdefensesystem,orapoorlyoperatingnervous

system.

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals6

disability殘疾，功能障礙Disabilityandillnessescanalsobeprovokedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.

drugaddiction藥物成癮

Theseailmentsincludedrugaddiction,obesity,malnutrition,andpollution-caused

obesity肥胖

malnutrition營養(yǎng)不良healthproblems.

inheritable可遺傳的Furthermore,athousandormoreinheritablebirthdefectsresultfromalternations

inbornerrors先天缺陷ingenepatterns.Sincetinygenesareresponsibleforproducingthemanychemicals

mentalretardation智力低下

hereditary遺傳的neededbythebody,missingorimproperlyoperatinggenescanseriouslyimpair

health.Geneticdisordersthataffectbodychemistryarecalledinbornerrorsof

metabolism.Someformsofmentalretardationarehereditary.

HowGermsInvadetheBody

germ病菌，微生物Humansliveinaworldwheremanyotherlivingthingscompeteforfoodand

pathogen病原體placestobreed.Thepathogenicorganisms,orpathogens,oftenbroadlycalledgerms,

Wardoff防止，逐退

thatcausemanydiseasesareabletoinvadethehumanbodyanduseitscellsand

fluidsfortheirownneeds.Ordinarily,thebody'sdefensesystemcanwardoffthese

invaders.

Pathogenicorganismscanenterthebodyinvariousways.Some-suchasthese

pneumonia[]肺炎

tuberculosis肺結(jié)核thatcausethecommoncold,pneumonia,andtuberculosis-arebreathedin.Others-

venereal性病的suchasthosethatcausevenerealdiseases-enterthroughsexualcontactofhuman

hepatitis肝炎

colitis結(jié)腸炎bodies.Stillothers-suchasthosethatcausehepatitisandcolitis-getinthebody

utensil器皿

throughcontaminatedfood,waterorutensils.

Insectscanspreaddiseasebyactingasvectors,orcarriers.Fliescancarrygerms

vector載體

taint污染，變質(zhì)fromhumanwasteorothertaintedmaterialstofoodandbeverages.Germsmayalso

enterthebodythroughthebiteofamosquito,louse,orotherinsectvector.

HowtheBodyFightsDisease

Asafirstlineofdefense,ahealthybodyhasanumberofphysicalbarriers

mucus粘液

againstinfection.Theskinandmucousmembranescoveringthebodyorliningits

mucous粘膜的，粘液的

boil療子openingsofferconsiderableresistancetoinvasionbybacteriaandotherinfectious

pimple小膿皰

organisms.Ifthesephysicalbarriersareinjuredorburned,infectionresistancedrops.

Inminorcases,onlyboilsorpimplesmaydevelop.Inmajorcases,however,large

areasofthebodymightbecomeinfected.

Breathingpassagesareespeciallyvulnerabletoinfection.Fortunately,theyare

vulnerable易受傷害的linedwithmucus-secretingcellsthattraptinyorganismsanddustparticles.Also,

cilium(pl.cilia)纖毛minutehairscalledcilialinethebreathingpassages,wavegentlyandsweepmatter

eject排出，噴射

outoftherespiratorytract.Inaddition,foreignmatterinthebreathingpassagescan

oftenbeejectedbynoseblowing,coughing,sneezing,andthroatclearing.

Unfortunately,repeatedinfection,smokingandothercausescandamagethe

respiratorypassagewaysandmakethemmoresusceptibletoinfection.

Manypotentialinvaderscannotstandbodytemperature(37℃).Eventhosethat

thriveatthattemperaturemaybedestroyedwhenthebodyassumeshigher,fever

EnglishforMedicalProfessionals7

temperatures.

canal管Waxintheouterearcanalsandtearsfromeyeductscanslowthegrowthof

duct管somebacteria.Andstomachacidcandestroycertainswallowedgerms.

Thebody'ssecondlineofdefenseisinthebloodandlymph.Certainwhiteblood

pus膿

abscess膿腫cellsflocktoinfectedareasandtrytolocalizetheinfectionbyformingpus-filled

drain引流，排出abscesses.Unlesstheabscessbreaksandallowsthepustodrain,theinfectionislikely

streak線(條)

tender觸痛的tospread.Whenthishappens,theinfectionisfirstblockedbylocallymphglands.For

armpit腋窩example,aninfectioninthehandtravelsupthearm,producingredstreaksand

bacteriemia菌血癥

swollen,tenderlymphglandsinthearmpit.Unlesstheinfectionisbroughtunder

control,itwillresultinbacteriemia.

Phagocytesarelocatedatvarioussitestominimizeinfection.Onetypeinthe

phagocyte吞噬細胞

bronchi支氣管spleenandliverkeepsthebloodclean.Othersinsuchhigh-riskareasasthewallsof

shatter打碎，破壞

thebronchiandtheintestinesremovecertainbacteriaandshatteredcells.

WeBecomeImmunetoDisease

Thebodyhasaspecialwayofhandlinginfection.Ithasasystemthatfendsoff*

fendoff阻止

immunity免疫力thefirsttracesofaninfectioussubstanceandthen,througha"memory,“givesthe

bodyalong-lastingimmunityagainstfutureattacksbythesamekindofinvader.

Manysubstancescouldharmthebodyiftheyeverenteredit.Thesesubstances,

antigen抗原

pollen花粉orantigens,rangefrombacteriaandpollentoatransplantedorgan(viewedbythe

bodyasaninvader).Tofightthemthebodymakesspecialchemicalsknownas

antibodies.

Antibodiesar