1、Syntax,組員：陳雪芹、齊麗麗、高偉、陳靜、黃雪、段彬彬、丁靜,句法學(xué)簡介,1.Definition:Syntax is the study of rules (governing the structure of phrase and the structure of sentence )or the interrelationships of elements in sentence structure. All in all,it focus on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence.,2.Syntax

2、-from word to text(how to organize words into phrase,further into sentences.It is concerned with the combination of words). Purpose:study the rules and reveals the relationship of the form and the function/meaning of language.,Basic Concepts,3.The Prescriptive Approach-the traditional grammar,lay do

3、wn rules for the correct or proper use of English,mainly according to the grammar of Latin. The word order depends on some factors: Grammatical category/part of speech/word class, number, gender, case, tense, aspect, concord, government,4.The descriptive approach-to describe the regular structures o

4、f the language as it it used objectively ,not according to some view of how it should be used. Position: It is the basis of most modern attempt to characterized the structure of different language. Classification: Structure analysis Immediate constituent analysis,(1)Structural analysis-study the dis

5、tribution of linguistic forms in a language . Syntagmatic relation:is a relation between one item and others in a sequence , or between the elements which are all present (horizonal relation). Paradigmatic relation:is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular pl

6、ace in a atructure or between one element present and the others absent (verdical relation ,substitution relation),(2)immediate constituents（ICs）直接成分: constituents directly below the level of a construction ultimate constituents (UCs) 最終成分: last level of constituents,Advantages of IC analysis It hel

7、ps to account for the ambiguity of certain constructions. e.g. The son of Pharaohs daughter is the daughter of Pharaohs son. It clearly demonstrates that sentences are not mere left-to-right linear sequences of elements. Instead, elements come into relationships of great complexity and varying kinds

8、. (胡壯麟，P125-126),The son of Pharaohs daughter is the daughter of Pharaohs son =（1）The daughter of Pharaohs son 法老兒子的女兒 =（2）The daughter of Pharaohs son 法老女兒的兒子,Disadvantages of IC Analysis 1. It results in technical problems due to discontinuous constituents. E.g. Leave + the book+ on the shelf. 2.

9、It results in ambiguity problems. E.g. the love of God, the shooting of the hunters,Basic components of a sentence,Sentence Subject Predicate a referring expression comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject,5.constituent structure grammar The idea of constituency

10、,which reveals a hierachy of structural levels , is referred to as a constituent structure grammar.,Lexical categories詞匯范疇,The name given to classes into which lexical items are grouped. -There are traditionally 8 classes: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective , adverb,preposition,conjunction -Modern lingu

11、istic theories have more, - They are also known as parts of speech and word classes,Classification of Lexical Items,How are words classified into classes? -Phonological criteria “To inCREASE the number of students, we need an Increase in funding.” -Semantic criteria, structural ambiguity “Flying pla

12、nes can be dangerous” if you live under the flight path. if you havent got a pilots license.,Common monadic categories are: 1. S Sentence -The largest category capable of syntactic categorization -I saw the big aeroplane. -How large is the plane? -Rob was flown by the aeroplane which Jane saw.,2. Ph

13、rase Structure,N V A P word level NP VP AP PP phrase level,NP Noun Phrase -Defined as a category that can bear some grammatical function in a sentence, e.g. as subject or direct object.,Types of NP NP NP NP NP N Pron. Det N Det Adj N John he, we, she a, the, apple the red apple this, that NP NP Det

14、N PP NP Subject a story about the hero the person who talked to me,VP Verb Phrase -A category consisting of a verb, its complements(補(bǔ)語）and its adjuncts(附加語). -John put the book on the table. (the book and on the table are complements of put) -The girl saw the woman in the park with the telescope (in

15、 the park and with the telescope are the adjuncts of saw ),Types of VP VP VP VP V NP V PP V S hit the ball speak about the book said that he had told lies VP VP V Adv V run fast Look!,PP Prepositional Phrase -A phrase containing a preposition and a noun phrase. -on the table. -in the park -with the

16、telescope It is possible to have a PP within a PP: -in the park with the telescope,PP AP P NP Deg Adj about the book very little,S NP VP V-Bar specifier head Complement Susan rarely does so,e.g.,6.Transformational Generative Grammar,TG A description of the possible rules of human language that allow

17、 for infinite production of grammatical sentences. tries to define a universal grammar (UG),Three levels of transformational rules: The basic rule is Chomskys universal grammar ,the underlying principle The second type is the obligatory rules that govern the transformations of auxiliaries and princi

18、ples The third type is the optional transformational rules that govern the transformatons of negotion ,passive voice ,interrogation,Deep structure and surface structure,Deep Structure - the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.,Base component DEEP STRUCTURE Transform

19、ations (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements) SURFACE STRUCTURE (Note: When transformations are not necessary, the representations of these two levels are the same),is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization

20、 of construction people actually produce and receive.,S,NP,VP,Det,N,V,the,train,Infl,will,arrive,Surface Structure,see, Mary, John,John saw Mary.,S NP Infl VP N pst V N John see Mary,Further illustration: Deep structure,S NP Infl VP N pst V PP P N Mary was seen by John,Case Grammar,Filemore suggeste

21、d that the main verbs in a sentence are the most important part of the sentences and have a number of relationship with various noun phrases . These relationships are called cases. Cases , also called thematic roles or the participant role of the verb ,which also include:,1.Agent -the intiator of so

22、me action ,capable of acting with volition ,which is considered as logical subject and commonly occurs in subject position 2.patient-the ertity undergoing the effect of some action , often undergoing some change in state ,which is considered as the logical object and commonly occur in direct object

23、direction 3.theme-the ertity that is moved by an action , or whole location is described,4.instrument-the means by which an action is performed orr something comes about,7.systemic functional grammar -M.A.K.Halliday The related three systems : transitivity system , thematic system , mood system . Th

24、eyre influenced by the three functions respectively . Three metafunctions: (i)Ideational function:the field of discourse Construct a modle of experience and logical,relations ie , express content ,language can be used to convey the expression of the real world and the inner world. (ii)interpersonal

25、function:the tenor of discourse language can be used to enact and maintain social relationship in terms of stratification ,class , status ,role solidarity and distance,(iii)textual function:the mode of discourse Create relevance to context ie, language itself can make seprate sentences semantically coherent through some grammatical and semanticdevices.,The main achievements of the funtional approach 1.Functional sentence perspective sentence (i)Point of departure: the theme(主位)of the sentence ,known or old information (ii)Goal of discour