1、個(gè)人收集整理僅供參照學(xué)習(xí)HowWeShouldCombatTerrorismEversinceSeptember11happenedin2001,wholeworldhasbeenappealingtocombatterrorism.Aswecansee,peopleindifferentcountryholdverydifferentopinionsontheissuehowweshouldcombatterrorism.Obviously,Americansthinkthattheycankeepthemawayfromterrorismbyevanishingalltheirso-cal

2、ledenemiessuchasIraqandAfghanistan,andnowbothcountryareundertheircontrol,however,terrorismdoesnotdisappearastheyhavehoped.Contrarily,thereseemstobeanever-increasingtrend,justleavingcountlessguiltlesspeoplesufferingfromthewar。Itissaidthatabout5451peoplediedinthedisasterof9.11,whilethecasualtyofcommon

3、ofIraqhasreachedmorethan6087accordingtothestatisticsfreshlyreleasedbywhitehouse.Soweshouldalwayskeepinmindwhatwearesupposedtodoandwhatarenot,donotmakeyourselfaterroristbecauseofyourhateofterrorism.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Inmyopinion,inordertocombatterrorism,firstly,weshouldcombatallinequalityandinjusticedeeplyroot

4、edinoursociety.Therearesomanypeoplehadbeenandarewronglyandunfairlytreated:youarenotallowedtositinsomespecialpreservationinabusjustbecauseyouareablack,youareforbiddeninenteringsomeoccupationsbecauseyouareablack,youdothesamejoblikeotherswhilegettinglowerrewardsthanothersjustbecauseyouareablackoryouare

5、awomen.youareturneddownagaininajobapplyingbecauseofyourage.Ifallabovehappenedinsideacountry,thenfollowingareamongcountries:somecountriesrequestforillegalrightsinterferinginothercountrysnationalaffairsrelyontheirenormouseconomicandmilitarypower,theysuppressandcrackdownonMuslimcountries,separatetheirp

6、eoplefromtheirreligion.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Canyoubelievethatallthisthingshappenedinasocietyclaimedtobemoreandmoredemocracyandfree?Noonewantstobeguiltyunlesstheyareforcedtobe.Nowyousee，manypeoplearethirstyforequalityandjusticeasyouforpeaceandquite.Givingthemwhattheywant,thenyouwillgetwhatyouwant.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Whatis

7、Terrorism?“Thecalculateduseofunlawfulviolenceorthreatofunlawfulviolencetoinculcatefear;intendedtocoerceortointimidategovernmentsorsocietiesinthepursuitofgoalsthataregenerallypolitical,religious,orideological.”ThisisthedefinitionofterrorismbyTheUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefense.Butitshardtofigureoutwea

8、therthedefinitionissuitforallcestheplontheworld.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋1/5個(gè)人收集整理僅供參照學(xué)習(xí)Terrorism-thewordhasbeenusedformanythousandsyears,andeventhoughitbecomesaworldpopularone,sincetheterroristattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagon,itishardtogiveaallsatisfieddefinition.Itisalwaysdefinedvariouslyasbothtacticand

9、strategy,acriminalandaholyduty,ajustifiedreactiontooppressionandaninexcusableabomination.Obviouslyalotdependsonwhosepointofviewisrepresented.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Ingeneraleyes,thereareperspectivesofterrorism:theterrorists,thevictims,andthegeneralpublics.Thephrase“onemansterroristisanothermansfreedomfighter”isav

10、iewterrorithemselveswouldaccept.Terroristsdonotseethemselvesareevil.Theybelievetheyarelegitimatecombatants,fightforwhattheybelievein,bywhatevermeanspossible.Avictimofaterrorismactseestheterroristiscriminalwithnoregardsforhumanlife.Thegeneralpublicviewisthemostunstable.Theterroriststakegreatpainstofo

11、stera“RobinHood”imageinhopeofswayingthegeneralpublicspointofviewtowardtheircause.Sothissympatheticviewofterrorismhasbecomeanintegralpartoftheirpsychologicalwarfare.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋ButIagreewithoneopinion:“Terrorismoftenbeenhasaneffectivetacticfortheweakersideinaconflict.”Asanasymmetricformofconflict,itconf

12、erscoercivepowerwithmanyoftheadvantagesofmilitaryforceatafractionofthecost.Duetothesecretivenatureandsmallsizeofterroristorganizations,theyoftenofferopponentsnoclearorganizationtodefendagainstortodeter.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Thatiswhypreemptionisnowsoimportant.Insomecases,terrorismhasbeenameanstocarryonaconflictw

13、ithouttheadversaryrealizingthenatureofthethreat,mistakingterrorismforcriminalactivity.Becauseofthesecharacteristics,terrorismhasbecomeincreasinglycommonamongthosepursuingextremegoalsthroughouttheworld.BecauseifIamontheweakersideanyaggressivemovementwillbedefinedasterrorism,butifIstandontheoppositesi

14、de,itshouldbecalledasself-defense.文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Whatcauseterrorism？TomeTerrorismisanythingthatprovokesterrorintopeople.Thereisnojustificationforterror.Asocalledwaronterrorisinitselfterrorism.Peopleincetainplacesoftheworldhavebeenlivinginterrorforgenerations,anditisshockingthatitisstillgoingon.Wearesuppos

15、edtobeCIVILISEDyetwestillresorttoterrortacticstotryandsolveproblems.IamsoupsetthatArabs&jews,WesterncountriesandArabs,Affricansincertaincountriesseemnevertobeabletoliveinpeace.PartofthetroubleisthatafewpeoplemakeHUGERICHESoutofkeepingterrorismontheboil,sellingarmsetc(toBOTHSIDES!)ALLWARisTerrorism,h

16、oweveroppressedthepoordowntroddenpeopleare.LetusENDterrorismbyLOVEnotHATE*SMILES*文檔來自于網(wǎng)絡(luò)搜尋Povertyandeconomicdisadvantage,globalisation2/5個(gè)人收集整理僅供參照學(xué)習(xí)AmoreimportantfactormaybethesocialstratificationWilliamsisreferringtoandinequalitiesinthedistributionofscarceresources.Extensivecontemporarymediaandlit

17、eraturesimplifythistothepovertyargument(e.g.Murphy(2001)andKristof(2002):whenagroupisabsolutelyorrelativelydeprivedtheyrebel.Acomprehensiveevaluationoftheextantliteratureonthevalidityofthisargument,theEconomicInequality-PoliticalConflict(EI-PC)hypothesis,hasbeencarriedoutbyLichbach(1989),whocametoth

18、econclusionthatEI-PCstudieshaveproducedanequivocalanswerabouttheEI-PCnexus(p440)regardlesstheresearchangle(statistics,rationalactoranddeprivedactorparadigms).ProblemsLichbachidentifiedwerenotionsonthelackofexactlydefinedeconomicfactorsinfluencingthedecisiontoresorttopoliticalconflictandthetolerancef

19、orinequality(p452),accordingtotheRationalActor(RA)approachshiftingtobehaviouraldissentonlywhenabsolutepovertyispresent,theDeprivedActor(DA)scientificresearchprogramsundefinedadditionalintermediatepsychologicalprocesses(p459),andanothernotfullyexploredfactorofthe(insignificant)influenceofcollectiveac

20、tion(p465).Say,onedismissestheinconclusiveresearchresultsandassumesthatitisa(major)causefuellingterrorism-proofbycontradiction:roughly15%ofthepopulationconsumes85%oftheresources,UNstatisticsshowthatcitizensintheThirdWorldareworseoffnowthan30yearsago,whileasmallfactioninthosecountriesenrichedthemselv

21、es,i.e.RAandDAarebothpresentaswellasthestatistics.Ifeitheroneofthemistrue,theWestoughttobecontinuouslysubjecttoterroristactsby(asmallgrouprepresenting)peoplefromtheseThirdWorldcountries.ButthereisnohugemassuprisingofthevastmajorityoftheworldpopulationagainstthefewinWesternstates,norcontinuousterrori

22、stattackscarriedoutbyThirdWorldcitizensagainsttheWest.Infact,theamountofterroristincidentsdeclinedinthe1990s.(Refertoe.g.PatternsofGlobalTerrorismpublications,downloadablefromtheUSStateDepartmentwebsiteathttp:/www.usemb.se/terror/).Broadeningtheperspectivetoglobalisation,Galtung(2002)blamestheThirdW

23、orld-FirstWorlddichotomyasanewversionofclassconflictbasedonstructuralviolence.Thisassertioninitselfmayprovideanexplanationastowhywidespreadsocialupheavalhasnotoccurred.Provinginjusticebeingdonebystructuralviolenceisconsiderablymoredifficultthananovertassaultonacountryordiscriminationofatargetgroup,a

24、ndevenifonesucceedsinconvincingonesowngroup,theywilllikelystumbleuponresortingtoterroristmethods,notpossessingsufficientassetstopurchaseanddevelopso-calledweaponsofmassdestruction.Thisisanexampleofawidergapbetweenmeansandends.Guelke(1995)exploresglobalisation,inequalityandtheThirdWorldfromanotherdir

25、ectionandexploresthepossiblelinksbetweeneconomicaffluenceandastableliberaldemocracy,therebyassumingthatitwouldreduceincidenceofterrorism.However,atthesametimeheassertsthataliberaldemocracyhasprovedlittlemoresuccessfulthanotherformsofpoliticalsystemsinovercomingtherelativeweaknessofthestateinmanyThir

26、dWorldsocieties(p135)andthateconomicdevelopmentisamoreimportantfactortomaintainlawandorder.Guelkeismoreconcernedwithintra-ThirdWorldconflictsthanworldwideinternationalterrorismastherehasbeenrelativelylittlespill-overfrompoliticalviolencewithinThirdWorldstatesintotheinternationalarena(p142)andinaddit

27、iontoeconomicdevelopment,thepossibleeffectsadebilitatedliberaldemocracyinThirdWorldcountriesmayinduceandfacilitate,butwithoutformulatingasoundconclusiononthemattereither.(non)democracyThefactorofdemocracyasaninstigatororfacilitatorforterrorismdeservesfurtherexploration.Ademocraticgovernmentissuppose

28、dtorepresentthepeopleandprovidepoliticalmeanstovoicegrievances,henceessentiallyprovidingaspherewhereterrorismhasnoplace.Forthisreason,intheory,therecannotbeanaggrievedgroupthatisnotadequatelyrepresented;otherwise,itisaviolationofthedoctrinesofdemocracyandconstitutionalism(Wilkinson,1977:232).Inreali

29、ty,thismaynotbethecase:forexamplethesecond-classcitizensinthedemocraticJewishstateIsrael(excludingnon-Jewishcitizenscertainrights(Dworkin,1997:222).SuchasituationwouldfitWilkinsonsassertionthatpoliticalviolenceismorallyjustifiableinademocracyintwooccasions:Firstly,thereisthecaseofthe3/5個(gè)人收集整理僅供參照學(xué)習(xí)m

30、inoritywhosebasicrightsandlibertiesaredeniedortakenawaybyarbitraryactionofthegovernmentoritsagencies.Secondwhenoneminorityisattackedbyanotherminorityanddoesnotreceiveadequateprotectionfromthestateanditsforcesoflawandorder.(Wilkinson,1977:40)andThosewhoarethesubjectsofaliberalstate,butwhoarenotadmitt

31、edtoitsrightsofcitizenshipcannotbemorallyboundtoobediencetothestate.Theyarenotboundbypoliticalobligationfortheyhavenotbeenaccordedanyrightsbythestate.(Wilkinson,1977:39)Arguably,basedontheseclaims,onecansayitisexactlyabsenceofacorrectimplementationofdemocraticidealsandnotdemocracysic.However,acharac

32、teristicofdemocraciesistheiropenness.Some,likeMeyer(2002)andKhan(2003),considerthisopennessamajorweaknessofthesystem,andthereforeacause.Opennessinitselfcannotbeacause,onlymaybeeasingterroristsintheirpreparationsandfacilitatingpublicityintherelativeabsenceofcensorship,butnotthechangeofmindsettoresort

33、toterrorismasatool.Likewisethenon-causeoftheclaimsoftheincreaseineaseofmobilityandtechnology,putforwardbyforexampleHomer-Dixon(2002).ItisconceivabletocontendthatWesternstatesareasclosetothedemocraticideologyaspossible,butitisgenerallyassumedthecase,therebyinvalidatingWilkinsonstwooccasions.Whythen,h

34、aveWesternstatesnotbeenfreefrominternalterrorism?Whatmightbeacause,istheso-calledterrorofthemajority:theminorityisrepresentedandallowedtovoicetheirgrievances,butthisisconsistentlynottranslatedintodesiredpoliciesbecausetherearenotsufficientvotestopassdesiredlegislation.DisaffectedintelligentsiaRubens

35、teinelaboratesanotherinterestingaspectoccurringinWesternliberaldemocraticstatesinhisbookAlchemistsofRevolution(1987),thoughnotnecessarilybecauseofahiatusindemocraticgovernance.TherearetwopointsIwouldliketobringunderattention.First,Rubensteinsthesisthatthemaincauseofterrorismaredisgruntled,disaffecte

36、d,intelligentsiawhoareinasocialandmoralcrisisunabletomobilizethemasses.Thisisaprimaryinternalcauseofterrorism,dictatingtoadegreeitsphilosophy,tacticsandconsequences(Rubenstein,1987:xvii).Intellectuals,ofthetypeofambitiousidealist,donothavearebelliouslowerclasstoleadduetoshiftsfromprimaryandmanualwor

37、ktotheservicessector,nordotheyreceiveguidancefromacreativeupperclassthattheycanfollow.Whenrigidsocialstratificationshatterhopesforsocialtransformation,thentheingredientsarepresentforastartorriseinterroristactivitiesinanattempttoreconnectwiththemasseswhotheyclaimtorepresentandaspiretolead.Examples:.e

38、versincetheRussianintellectualsinventedmodernterrorism.(Radu,2001),referringtoNarodnayaVolya,WieviorkasDisappointed,frustratedorunrealisableupwardmobility(1988:29);middle-classalienation(Kristof,2002);spoiltchildrenofaffluence(Wilkinson,1977:93);Crenshaw(1981);Williams(1994:65),andsoforth.Butnow,15y

39、earsafterthebookspublication,accesstothirdleveleducation(thedemocratisationofeducation)hasincreasedtosuchanextendthatitdevaluesdegreestoaminimumstandardforprocuringajob.Isthedegreegraduatenowthenew(whitecollar)workingclassstuckinhis/hercubicle?Iftrue,thenthegapbetweenthemassesandintelligentsiaissmal

40、leratpresent,hencemorelikelytobebridge-able,andthereforelesspronetoinduceideastoresorttoterrorism,thusatleastweakeningRubensteinsview.ThesecondaspectofRubensteinsbookisabroaddiscussiononthemyriadof,predominantlyleftist,politicalideologies-indirectlytheperceivedcausebeingtheundemocraticgovernment,unf

41、aircapitalistsystemetal-butmaysimplybeafailedrevolution.DehumanisationOppositetheconceptofdisaffectedintelligentsiaistheassertionthatitisnotintelligentsia,butsimplemindedpeoplewhoareeasytoindoctrinatethatareperceivedtobethecause(RathboneandRowley,2002)prevalentinmorerecentpopularliterature.They,ando

42、thers,areessentiallytryingtodehumaniseterrorists,therebyconfirmingterroristscorereasonsthey4/5個(gè)人收集整理僅供參照學(xué)習(xí)arefightingfor:beingheard,recognisedandtreatedasequalhumanbeings.Inthiscontext,Midgley(2002)hasputforwardaninterestingexplanationfortheincreasedlevelsofdehumanisation:acontinuationofthefrozen,ab

43、stracthatredsmadepossiblebythecoldwar.thissuspendingofnormalhumanrelationsissupposedtobejustatemporaryexpedient.ThecorruptthingabouttheColdWarideawasthatitlegitimisedacceptanceofthisevilasanormal,permanentconditionoflife.Itdomesticatedtribalhatred.Thusobfuscatingthedistinctionbetweenliteralandmetaph

44、oricalwars,wherethenegativemindsetofpeoplecausedbytheColdWarcontinuestoliveon,andfeed,terrorismandtheviolentresponsesonterrorism,madepossiblebydisregardingtheideathatanopponentisahumanbeingtoo.However,acloserexaminationofthisargumentrevealsthattheimpliedcauseoftheviolenceiswithinus,havinginternalise

45、ddehumanisation,nottheilliteratestupidother.ReligionInlinewitheitherdehumanisation,orwithpreviouslyoutlinedethnicityanddemocracyorboth,isreligionasacauseforterrorismputforward,MuslimfanaticsintheMiddleEastinparticular.MichaelRadu(2001),seniorfellowattheForeignPolicyResearchInstituteintheUS,providesa

46、simplification:democracyisdeclaredun-IslamicbyallideologuesofIslamicterrorism,IslamistshatecapitalismandbelieveinanewCaliphate(whowillleadthecommunityofMuslimsworldwide)andopposeindividualism.Statisticsrevealtworelevantintriguingfacets.Oneisreligiousrevivalingeneral,withtheUSatthetop(Doyle,2003),theotherisstatisticsonkillings(includingfromonemurdertoworldwars)gatheredandanalysedb