PartOne

TheUnitedStatesisatonceaverynewnationandaveryoldnation.Itisanewnationcomparedwithmanyothercountries,anditisnew,too,inthesensethatitisconstantlybeingrenewedbytheadditionofnewelementsofpopulationandofnewStates.Butinothersensesitisold.Itistheoldestofthe"new"nations--thefirstonetobemadeoutofanOldWorldcolony.Ithastheoldestwrittenconstitution,theoldestcontinuousfederalsystem,andtheoldestpracticeofself-governmentofanynation.OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericansyouthisthatthewholeofitshistorybelongsintheperiodsincetheinventionoftheprintingpress.Thewholeofitshistoryis,therefore,recorded:indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhassocomprehensivearecordofitshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchasthosethatarelostinthelegendarypastofItalyorFranceorEnglandarepartoftheprintedrecordoftheUnitedStates.AndtheAmericanrecordisnotonlycomprehensive;itisimmense.ItembracesnotonlytherecordofthecolonialeraandoftheNationsince1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andtheintricatenetworkofrelationshipsbetweenStatesandNation.Thus,totakeaveryelementaryexample,thereportsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,andthereportsofsomeStatesarealmostequallyvoluminous:thereaderwhowantstotracethehistoryoflawinAmericaisconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesoflegalcases.Noonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthecharacterofapeopleoroftheirgovernment.Butwhenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsstrikeaconsistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearighttosaythatisthekeynote.Whenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddressthemselvesinthesameways,tothesameoverarchingproblems,wehavearighttoreadfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwecancallnationalcharacteristics.PartTwo

TheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselawsystem.Mostfieldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensiveandsteadilygrowingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretationthroughcaselaw.KnowledgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueofworkingwithcaselawthereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingofAmericanlawandlegalmethodology.TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyoverlocallaw--whichwasdecreedbytheitinerantjudgesoftheEnglishroyalcourt.Theenforcementofaclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,withtheresultthattheoriginalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"actions"similartothatofclassicalRomanlaw.Ifawritexisted(in1227)aclaimcouldbeenforced;therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithoutawrit,theclaimdidnotexist.Thissystembecameinflexiblewhenthe"ProvisionsofOxford"(1258)prohibitedthecreationofnewwrits,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"writuponthecase"allowedandwhichlaterledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledtothedevelopmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."Equity",initsgeneralmeaningofdoing"equity",decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlaterbyhisChancelloras"keeperoftheKing'sconscience",toaffordreliefinhardshipcases.Inthefifteenthcentury,however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedintoanindependentlegalsystemandjudiciary(CourtofChancery)whichcompetedwiththeordinarycommonlawcourts.Itsrulesandmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,inflexibleasinanylegalsystem.Specialcharacteristicsofequitylawinclude:reliefintheformofspecificperformance(incontrasttothecommonlawawardofcompensatorydamages),theinjunction(atemporaryorfinalordertodoornottodoaspecificact),thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhichpermeatedtheentirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegalconcepts.However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefisinadequate.Forinstance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbegrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannotcompensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicialacceptanceorthroughexpressstatutoryprovision.Today,bothlegalsystemshavebeenmergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions(beginningwithNewYorkin1848),withtheresultthatthereisonlyoneformofcivilsuitinthesejurisdictionsaswellasinfederalpractice.OnlyfewStatescontinuetomaintainaseparatechancerycourt.Nevertheless,thereferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,ontheonehand,itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts(forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawofproperty)and,ontheotherhand,itisstillrelevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,forinstance,thereisarighttoatrialbyjury(onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inothercasesonlybeforethejudge).Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe"ordinary"commonlawreliefofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"extraordinary"equityremedyofspecificperformanceisavailable."Caselaw"describestheentirebodyofjudge-madelawandtodayincludescommonlawandequityprecedents.Inimpreciseandconfusingusagetheterms"commonlaw"and"caselaw"areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"commonlaw"inthisusageconnotingjudge-madelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."Caselaw"alwaysconnotesjudg-madelaw,while"commonlaw"incontrast--dependingonthemeaningintended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubjectmattersor,PartOne：TheBar

Theregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachofwhichhasitsownrequirementsforadmissiontopractice.Mostrequirethreeyearsofcollegeandalawdegree.Eachstateadministersitsownwrittenexaminationtoapplicantsforitsbar.Almostallstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,adaylongmultiplechoicetest,towhichthestateaddsadaylongessayexaminationemphasizingitsownlaw.Noapprenticeshipisrequiredeitherbeforeorafteradmission.Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyermaytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereonehasbeenadmitted.However,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmittedwithoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedforsometime,oftenfiveyears.Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatisopentoothercitizens.Itisnotuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboardsofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyinpublicaffairs.Alawyerremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,anemployeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,andmayreturntoprivatepracticefromtheseotheractivities.Arelativelysmallnumberoflawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutivepositionsincommerceandindustry.ThemobilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibilityintheprofessionisevidencedbythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,asuccessfulNewYorklawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,AttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.Thereisnoformaldivisionamonglawyersaccordingtofunction.ThedistinctionbetweenbarristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnitedStates,andthereisnobranchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverighttoappearincourt,noristhereabranchthatspecializesinthepreparationoflegalinstruments.TheAmericanlawyersdomainincludesadvocacy,counselling,anddrafting.Furthermore,withinthespherebroadlydefinedasthe"practiceoflaw"thedomainisexclusiveandisnotopentoothers.Inthefieldofadvocacy,therulesarefairlyclear:anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,withtheexceptionofafewinferiorcourts,onlyalawyermayrepresentanotherincourt.Nonlawyersare,however,authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofajudicialnaturebeforesomeadministrativeagencies.Thelinesofdemarcationarelessclearintheareasofcounsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexamplebetweenthepracticeoflawandthatofaccountinginthefieldoffederalincometaxation.However,thestrictapproachofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbyadecisionofNewYorkshighestcourtthatalawyeradmittedtopracticeinaforeigncountrybutnotinNewYorkisprohibitedfromgivinglegaladvicetoclientsinNewYork,eventhoughtheadviceislimitedtothelawoftheforeigncountrywherethelawyerisadmitted.Aforeignlawyermay,however,beadmittedtothebarofoneofthestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeingadmitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasaconsultantonforeignlaw.PartTwo：LawyersinPrivatePractice

Amongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,aresinglepractitioners.Theremainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,whicharegenerallyorganizedaspartnerships.Fourorfiveofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermappliedtosalariedlawyersemployedbyafirmoranotherlawyer.Thistrendtowardgrouppracticeisofrelativelyrecentorigin.Throughoutmostofthenineteenthcenturylawpracticewasgeneralratherthanspecialized,itschiefingredientwasadvocacyratherthancounsellinganddrafting,andtheprototypeoftheAmericanlawyerwasthesinglepractitioner.Markedspecializationbeganinthelatterpartofthatcenturyinthelargecitiesnearthefinancialcenters.Withthegrowthofbigbusiness,biggovernment,andbiglabor,theworkofthelawyeraccomodateditselftotheneedsofclientsforexpertcounsellinganddraftingtopreventaswellastosettledisputes.Thebestlawyerswereattractedtothisworkandleadershipofthebargravitatedtopersonswhorarelyifeverappearedincourtandwhoweresoughtafterasadvisors,planners,andnegotiators.Todaythelawyerregardsitassoundpracticetobecontinuouslyfamiliarwithclientsbusinessproblemsandtoparticipateatallstepsintheshapingoftheirpolicies.Majorbusinesstransactionsarerarelyundertakenwithoutadviceofcounsel.PartThree:HouseCounselOutofeverytwentylawyers,twoareemployedbyprivatebusinessconcerns,suchasindustrialcorporations,insurancecompanies,andbanks,usuallyashouseorcorporatecounselintheconcernslegaldepartment.Thegrowthofcorporations,thecomplexityofbusiness,andthemultitudeofproblemsposedbygovernmentregulationmakeitdesirableforsuchfirmstohaveintheiremploypersonswithlegaltrainingwho,atthesametime,areintimatelyfamiliarwiththeparticularproblemsandconditionsofthefirm.Inlargecorporationsthelegaldepartmentmaynumberonehundredormore.Thegeneralcounsel,whoheadstheoffice,isusuallyanofficerofthecompanyandmayserveonimportantpolicymakingcommitteesandperhapsevenontheboardofdirectors.Housecounselremainmembersofthebarandareentitledtoappearincourt,thoughanoutsidelawyerisoftenretainedforlitigation.However,itisthehousecounselsskillasadvisorratherthanasadvocatethatisavaluedasset.Constantlyintouchwiththeemployersproblems,housecounselisideallysituatedtopracticepreventivelawandmayalsobecalledupontoadvisethecompanyonitsbroaderobligationtothepublicandthenation.PartFour：LawyersinGovernmentAparalleldevelopmenthastakenplaceingovernmentandtwooutoftwentylawyersarenowemployeesofthefederal,state,county,andmunicipalgovernments,exclusiveofthejudiciary.Manyofthoseenteringpublicservicearerecentlawgraduateswhofindgovernmentsalariessufficientlyattractiveatthisstageoftheircareersandseekthetrainingthatsuchservicemayofferasapreludetoprivatepractice.Limitationsontopsalaries,however,discouragesomefromcontinuingwiththegovernment.Themajorityservesbyappointmentinthelegaldepartmentsofavarietyoffederalandstateagenciesandlocalentities.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJusticealoneemploysmorethantwothousands,andtheLawDepartmentoftheCityofNewYorkmorethanfourhundreds.Othersareengagedaspublicprosecutors.Federalprosecutors,theUnitedStatesattorneysandtheirassistants,areappointedbythePresidentandaresubordinatetotheAttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates.Stateprosecutors,sometimesknownasdistrictattorneys,arecommonlyelectedbyeachcountyandarenotunderthecontrolofthestateattorneygeneral.Asarule,lawyersingovernmentaredirectlyengagedinlegalwork,sincelawtrainingisinfrequentlysoughtaspreparationforgeneralgovernmentservice.However,asmallbutimportantminoritythatconstitutesanexceptiontothisruleconsistsofthosewhohavebeenappointedtohighexecutivepositionsandthosewhohavebeenelectedtopoliticaloffice.Thoughtheparticipationoflawyersingovernmenthasdeclinedrecently,fortwocenturieslawyershavemadeuproughlyhalfoftheCongressoftheUnitedStatesandofthestategovernors.ThesefiguresbearoutthecommentofChiefJusticeStonethat,"Notraditionofourprofessionismorecherishedbylawyersthanthatofitsleadershipinpublicaffairs."LessonThree:LegalEducation法律教育

In1983,over125,000lawstudentswerestudyinginmorethan170ABAaccreditedlawschoolsincludingpubliclawschoolssupportedinpartbygovernmentfunds;privatelawschoolssupportedbycontributionsfromindividualsandfoundationfunds;andlocalornationalschoolsofferingfulltimeorparttimelegalstudyprograms.Asvirtuallytheonlywaytoprepareformembershipinthelegalprofession,lawschoolsintheUnitedStatesfulfillseveralfunctionsincludingprofessionaltrainingandsocializationoffuturelawyersandscreeningandgatekeepingforentrancetotheprofession.Sincethereisnocentralinstitutionwherealllawyerspractice,theonlyinstitutionalexperiencewhichlawyershaveincommonislawschool.Thecriticismswhichrangefrom"mildtocaustic"ofthewayinwhichlawschoolshavecarriedoutthesefunctionsandofthefunctionsthemselveshavebeenpersistent,diverseandrootedinthehistoricalandpoliticaldevelopmentoftheprofession.Thesecriticismshavefocussedonthecurriculumandthedominanceofthecasemethod;thedistributionofpowerandprestigereflectedinthehierarchywithinandamongthelawschools;andtheimbalanceintermsofwomenandminoritiesinthestudentbodyandfacultyinthelawschools.

PartOne：CurriculumandtheCaseMethod

Thetraditionalfirst-yearprogramofferedinvirtuallyallAmericanlawschoolsincludescontracts,torts,property,criminallawandcivilprocedure.DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthetraditionalfirst-yearcurriculumasbasicallyteachingthegroundrulesforlate19thcenturylaissez-fairecapitalism.ThesecondyearandthirdyearcourseexpoundthemoderatereformistNewDealprogramandtheadministrativestructureofthemodernregulatorystate.Theperipheralsubjects,iftheyareoffered,includelegalphilosophy,legalhistory,legalprocess,andclinicaleducation,a"kindofplaygroundorfinishingschoolforlearningthesocialartofselfpresentationasalawyer".However,asnewareasofthelawcontinuetodevelopinresponsetocontemporaryissuesandproblems,somelawschoolshaveexpandedcurriculatoincludecoursesandclinicalprogramsinenvironmentallaw,housingandurbandevelopment,women`srights,healthintheworkplace,welfarerightsandconsumerprotection.Therearealsoincreasingeffortstoteachlawininterdisciplinarycontexts,drawingonotherdisciplinessuchashistory,psychology,sociology,medicine,andeconomics.Inteachingthetraditionalcurriculum,lawteachersinalmostallthelawschoolsusetosomeextentthecasemethodortheSocraticmethod.Developedinthe1870sbyChristopherColumbusLangdellattheHarvardLawSchool,thecasemethodlookedtothecommonlawasthesourceoflegalpriniciplesandfocussedontheteachingofanabstractconceptionofthelawasascience.Thelegalprincipleselicitedweretobetaughtdivorcedfromthe"grubbyworldofpractice--andalsofrompolitics,history,economics,andsocialcontexts".Thisnarrowformalisticapproachwasjustifiedonthegroundthatittaughtstudentshowtostate,analyze,evaluateandcompareconcretefactsituationsthusdevelopingtheirpowersandskillsofanalysis,reasoning,andexpression.However,thisprocessoflearning"howtothinklikealawyer"hasbeencriticizedashavinganadverseimpactbothonthestudentsandthequalityoffuturelawyering.Students,lawteachers,andothershavepointedtothealienation,anxiety,hostilityandaggressioncausedbyuseofthecasemethodorSocraticmethod.Thenarrowanddestructiveinteractionofthisdialogue,oroften"nodialogue",contributestotheimpairmentoftheabilitytocareaboutotherpeople,aprofessionalunemotionalismandcynicismonthepartoflawstudents.Anditisnotonlythelawstudentswhosufferfromthisnarrowingoftheirprofessionalselves.Theworkofalawyerinvolvescontinuouscontactswithclients,associates,otherlawyers,judges,witnesses,othersaffectedbythelaw,andinvolvesthelawyer’sowngoals,attitudes,performance,andsenseofsatisfaction.PartTwo：LawSchoolHierarchy

DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthelawschoolsas"intenselypoliticalplaces",characterizedbya"tradeschoolmentality,theendlessattentiontotreesattheexpenseofforests."Thelawschoolsfunctionastheinstitutionfor"ideologicaltrainingforwillingserviceinthehierarchiesofthecorporatewelfarestate".Intherankingandevaluationofstudents,studentslearntoaccepttheirplaceinahierarchywhichispresentedasjustandinevitableand"sopreparethemselvesforallthehierarchiestofollow".Inthelawteachersmodelingofhierarchicalrelationshipswithstudents,colleagues,secretariesandsupportstaff,studentslearnaparticularstyleofcondescensiontowardsperceivedinferiorsanddeferencetowardsperceivedsuperiors.Andunderthesubtlebutintensepressuretoconformtothe"white,male,middleclasstone"setbylawfacultieswhichareoverwhelminglywhite,male,andmiddleclass,lawstudentsadapt,"partlyoutoffear,partlyoutofhopeofgain,partlyoutofgenuineadmirationfortheirrolemodels".Intheseways,"legaleducationisoneofthecausesoflegalhierarchy.Legaleducationsupportsitbyanalogy,providesitagenerallegitimatingideologybyjustifyingtherulesthatunderlieit,andprovidesitaparticularideologybymystifyinglegalreasoning.Legaleducationstructuresthepoolofprospectivelawyerssothattheirhierarchicalorganizationseemsinevitable,andtrainsthemtolookandthinkandactjustlikealltheotherlawyersinthesystem".InadditiontothehierarchywithinthelawschoolssuggestedbyKennedy,otheranalysesofthelawschoolsfunctionsandrelationshiptotheprofessionsuggesttheexistenceofahierarchyamongthelawschools.Thetopdozenorsoelitelawschoolsoccupyapositionofpowerandprestigewhichispartiallyreflectedintheprofessionalcareerpathsoftheirgraduatesandinthe"oldboynetworks"connectingthelawschoolsandtherestofthelegalprofession.Themodelsofthe"lawschoolasthegatewaytotheAmericanpowerelitebecamepossiblewiththeNewDeal".FelixFrankfurter’splacementnetworkforthe"bestandthebrightest"intoinfluentialpublicpolicypositionsduringtheNewDealinthe1930swasanearlyexampleofthiskindofnetwork.DuringhistenureatHarvardandlaterwhileontheSupremeCourt,Frankfurterdevelopedan"oldboynetwork"whichwasintimatelyinvolvedwiththeplacementofmanyofthe"elite"lawyers,allofwhomwerewhiteandmale,intopublicservice.ThetypicalFrankfurterrecruitwas"agraduateofHarvardLawSchool,politicallyliberal,usuallyrankedhighinhisclass,andeitheranobviousproductofupperclassgentilecultureoranobviousproductofaradicallydifferentculturewhowas'comfortable'intheupperclassgentileworld".Inthecurrenthiringpracticesofthemajorlawfirmsandinthecompetitionforjudicialclerkships,andintheappointmentstolawfaculties,thegraduatesoftheeliteschoolscontinuetohaveanadvantageovergraduatesofotherschools.InarecentstudyofChicagolawyers,ZemansandRosenblumfoundthatlawyerswhoattended"high-prestigelawschoolsandgraduatedinthetop20percentoftheirclassesweremuchmorelikelytopracticeinlargefirmsandspecializeinhigh-prestigefieldsoflaw".Intermsofappointmentstolawfaculties,60%ofthelegalprofession’steachingspecialistsareproducedbyfewerthan15%ofthenationsaccreditedlawschools.Theselawteacherproducerschoolsaremostlynational,locatedinurbanlocations,andincludeschoolssuchasHarvard,Yale,Columbia,UniversityofMichigan,Chicago,NewYorkUniversity,NorthwesternUniversity,andGeorgetown.Ifitistruethatthefulltimefacultyofthelawschools"haveavirtualmonopolyonwhowillandwillnotenterthe(legal)profession"and"onthepowertomoldfuturegenerations",thentheexistenceofahierarchyamongthelawschoolssuggeststhatanelitegroupofschoolsisprimarilyresponsibleforstaffingthelawschools,whichinturnproducelawyersforthehierarchieswithintheprofession.LessonFour：JudicialSystem司法系統(tǒng)PartOne：Courts

Therearefifty-twoseparatecourtsystemsintheUnitedStates.Eachstate,aswellastheDistrictofColumbia,hasitsownfullydeveloped,independentsystemofcourtsandthereisaseparatefederalcourtsystem.Thefederalcourtsarenotsuperiortothestatecourts;theyareanindependent,coordinatesystemauthorizedbytheUnitedStatesConstitution,Art.Ⅲ,§2,tohandlemattersofparticularfederalinterest.Thepresenceoftwoparallelcourtsystemsoftenraisesquestionsconcerningtherelationshipofthestateandfederalsystems,presentingimportantissuesoffederalism.TheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt,composedofninejustices,sitsasthefinalandcontrollingvoiceoverallthesesystems.Althoughafewstates,suchasNebraska,haveatwo-tieredsystem,moststates,aswellasthefederalcourts,arebasedonathree-tieredmodel.Thatmeansthatforanylitiganttherewillbetheopportunitytopleadhiscasebeforeatrialcourtandthen,shouldhelose,therearetwolevelsofappealatwhichheultimatelymaysucceed.Forexample,inthefederalsystemthetrialcourtistheUnitedStatesDistrictCourt,ofwhichthereisatleastoneineverystate.Manylargerstatesaredividedintotwo,threeorevenfourjudicialdistricts,dependingonpopulation,geographyandcaseload.Thereareninety-fourdistrictsintheUnitedStatesandeachdistrictcourthasonejudge,ormorecommonlytwoormore.Afteranadversejudgmentinthedistrictcourt,alitigantmayappealtotheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthecircuitinwhichthedistrictcourtislocated.Thereareelevennumberedintermediateappellatecourtsinthefederalsystem,eachincludinganywherefromthreetotenstatesandterritories.Additionally,thereisaCourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbia,hearingappealsfromthefederaldistrictcourtthere,andonefortheFederalCircuit,takingappealsfromvariousspecializedfederaltribunals,suchastheClaimsCourt.Eachcourtofappealshasfourormorejudgeswhositinpanelsofthreetoreviewdistrictcourtdecisions,aswellassomedecisionsofadministrativeagencies.Alosinglitigantinthecourtofappealsmay,insomecases,beabletoobtainreviewbytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt.Casesinthestatecourtssimilarlymayproceedthroughatrialcourt,astateappellatecourt,andthenthestatesupremecourt.IfafederalconstitutionalquestionisinvolvedthedecisionofthestateSupremeCourtmaybereviewedbytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt.Since1988,reviewbytheSupremeCourtincivilcasesisdiscretionary;virtuallyallcivilappealsasofrighttothehighestcourthavebeenabolished.Three-tieredsystemsvaryontherolewhichthehighestcourtplays.Theapproachestakenreflectdifferingphilosophieswithregardtowhatthehighestcourtshoulddo.Forexample,inCaliforniaonlycriminalcasesinwhichcapitalpunishmenthasbeenimposedareappealableasofrighttothestatesupremecourt.Similarly,inthefederalcourts,exceptinafewverylimitedcircumstances,appealstotheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtarediscretionary,bywritofcertiorari.TheCourtdecidesforitselfwhatarethemostimportantquestionsthatdeserveitsattentionandwillrefusetoreviewdecisionsraisingissuesthatitfeelsarenotascrucial.Inthiswayitsupervisestheadministrationoflawbythelowercourtsonanadhocbasis.Attheotherendofthespectrum,suchasinNewYork,appealstothestateshighestcourtareasofrightinagreatmanycasesprovidedforbystatute.TheprimaryfunctionofthehighestcourtinNewYorkappearstobetoassurethatcasesarecorrectlydecided.Itisnecessarytocheckcarefullythestatutesofthesysteminwhichyouareappearingtodeterminethespecificrulesregardingreviewbythoseappellatecourts.PartTwo：Judges

Fewerthanoneintwentyofthoseadmittedtopracticelawisafederal,state,county,ormunicipalcourtjudge.Exceptforsomeinferiorcourts,judgesaregenerallyrequiredtobeadmittedtopracticebutdonotpracticewhileonthebench.Thereissolittleuniformitythatitisdifficulttogeneralizefurtherthantopointoutthreesalientcharacteristicsthatrelatetotheranksfromwhichjudgesaredrawn,tothemethodoftheirselection,andtotheirtenure.Judgesaredrawnfromthepracticingbar