EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY

REFLECTIONFORACTION

CanadianEdition

O’Donnell,D’Amico,Schmid,Reeve,SmithEDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY

REFLECT1CHAPTER8

SocialConstructivismandLearninginCommunityEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCHAPTER8

SocialConstructivis2Chapter8SocialConstructivismandLearningintheCommunityThemesforthechapterSociallearningemphasizestheabilitytolearnfromobservationScaffoldingisanintegralpartofsocialconstructivisttheoriesoflearningInformallearningenvironmentssuchasmuseums,artgalleries,andparksallowfamiliestotakepartintheirchildren’slearningEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionChapter8SocialConstructivis3GuidingQuestionsWhatissociallearningtheory?Whatisnecessaryforobservationallearningtooccur?Howisscaffoldingusedininstruction?Whatkindsofinstructionareinfluencedbysocialconstructivismandsocioculturaltheory?Howcanteachersusetheresourcesofculturalinstitutionseffectively?Canlearnerswithspecialneedsbenefitfromsocial-constructivistorsocioculturalapproachestolearning?Howcanteachersusescaffoldingtechniquestoworkwithdiverselearners?EducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionGuidingQuestionsWhatissocia4SocialLearningTheorySociallearning(Bandura,1977)isasynonymforvicariouslearningVicariouslearning–learningfromtheexperienceofanotherpersonVicariousreinforcement–ifanotherpersonisreinforcedforabehaviour,thelikelihoodofanobserverengaginginthatbehaviourisincreasedVicariouspunishment–ifanotherpersonispunished,thelikelihoodofanobserverengaginginthatbehaviourisdecreasedEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialLearningTheorySociall5Fourthingsthatstudentslearnthroughvicariousexperiences:NewbehavioursNewconsequencesPerformanceexpectationsSelf-talkSocialLearningTheoryEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionFourthingsthatstudentslear6Modelling–learningbywatchinganotherThreetypesofmodellingeffects:ObservationallearningInhibitoryanddisinhibitoryeffectsResponsefacilitationeffectsSocialLearningTheoryEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionModelling–learningbywatchi7Observationallearning–learningbyobservingotherindividualsTheobservermustseethemodel’sbehaviouraspositiveorusefulAmodelthathasstatusorprestigeandissimilartotheobserverismorelikelytobeimitatedAnobserverwhoisengaginginataskismorelikelytolearnfromamodelwhoisengaginginasimilartaskAnobserverwhoattendstoamodel’sbehaviourcloselyismorelikelytoacquirethatbehaviourModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionObservationallearning–learn8Observationallearning(continued)CognitiveApprenticeshipAninstructionalstrategyinwhichthelearneracquiresknowledgebymodellingtheactivitiesoftheteacherandbeingcoachedbytheteacherModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionObservationallearning(contin9InhibitoryEffectandDisinhibitoryEffectsInhibitoryEffect–thelikelihoodofastudentperformingapreviouslylearnedbehaviouraredecreasedDisinhibitoryEffect–thelikelihoodofastudentperformingapreviouslylearnedbehaviourareincreasedModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInhibitoryEffectandDisinhib10Responsefacilitationeffect–amodel’sbehaviourcanserveasadiscriminativestimulusfortheobserverandfacilitatetheobserver’sresponseModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionResponsefacilitationeffect–11ConditionsNecessaryforObservationalLearningAttention–attendtotheimportantfeaturesofthemodel’sbehaviourRetention–retaintheinformationthathasbeenobservedProduction–performanceoftheobservercomesclosertothatofthemodelMotivation–learnerseesthebehaviourasimportantorleadingtosuccessorreinforcementEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionConditionsNecessaryforObser12ModellingandTVViewingTVandAggressionLearnersimitatetheaggressivemodel,andboysaremoreaggressivethangirlsViewerschangetheirattitudesinfavoroftheuseofaggressiontosolveproblems,showdecreasedsensitivitytoviolenceandincreasedtoleranceforviolenceWatchingviolenttelevisioncanhavelong-termeffectsintoadulthoodEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionModellingandTVViewingTVand13InstructionalBenefitsandTVViewingTelevision-viewingexperiencescanincreaseunderstandingofaudienceUnderstandingofgenrecanincreaseTVcanbeusedtoteachpositiveskillsModellingandTVViewingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionalBenefitsandTV14SocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoryVygotsky’stheoryofcognitivedevelopmentarguesforadialecticalrelationshipbetweentheindividualandthesocialcontextinwhichachilddevelopsDialecticalrelationship:theparticipantshavemutualinfluenceononeanotherortheactorchangestheenvironmentinsomeway;thechangedenvironmentsubsequentlychangestheactorEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialConstructivismandSoci15SocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoriesThesetheoriesofhumanlearningemphasize:SocialparticipationCollectiveefficacy–ajointlyheldbeliefthatthecommunityiseffectivewhenworkingtogetherAuthentictasksinwhichlearningisembeddedAuthentictasks–tasksthatareconnectedtotherealworldEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialConstructivismandSoci16SocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoriesToolstosupportlearning–cognitiveactivityisdistributed,orshared,betweentheindividualsandthetoolstheyuseAffordance:apropertyofatoolorartifactthatallowsapersontoactinparticularwaysthatwouldnotbepossiblewithouttheuseofthetoolEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialConstructivismandSoci17Tools:CanservearoleincommunicationsbetweenthemorecompetentandlesscompetentmembersofagroupIndistributedsystems,responsibilityforataskisdistributedamongparticipatingindividualsMayscaffolditsmembers’performanceandsupporttheiractivitySocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoriesEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionTools:SocialConstructivisman18TheRoleofExperienceTheexperiencesthatchildrenhaveintheircommunitymakeanimportantcontributiontotheircognitivedevelopmentInstructionislikelytobemoreeffectivewhenittakesaccountofstudents’previousexperiencesandinterestsExperiencehelpstosituatelearningwiththestudent’scultureEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionTheRoleofExperienceTheexpe19ScaffoldingThemorecompetentmemberscaffoldslearningofthelesscompetentmemberThelearnerandguidejointlycreateazoneofproximaldevelopmentinwhichthelearnerisabletoperformatalevelthatheorshecouldnotachievewithoutassistanceEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionScaffoldingThemorecompetent20ActivitiesTheguidewhoprovidesscaffoldingengagesinthreeactivities:ChannellingProvidingconstraintsduringthetasksothatthelearnerhasanincreasedlikelihoodofactingeffectivelyFocusingModellingScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionActivitiesScaffoldingEducation21FeaturesofappropriatescaffoldingIntentionalityAppropriatenessStructureCollaborationInternalizationScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionFeaturesofappropriatescaffo22InstructionthatConstitutesScaffoldingPlanning–structuringthelearningsituationforthestudentandmodelingexpertskillsCoaching–socialguidance,instruction,andcollaborationFading–transferofresponsibilityforproblemsolvingfromtheteachertotheever-more-proficientstudentScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionthatConstitutesS23PlanningChoosingactivitiesPlanningandstructuringSelectingtaskdifficultyDefiningthelearninggoalScriptingtaskinvolvementModelingtheactivityScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionPlanningScaffoldingEducational24CoachingOfferingtips,hints,pointers,assistanceSuggestingtaskstrategiesHelpingthestudentmaintainpursuitofgoalsbycalmingthemOfferingreminders,promptsAskingwell-timedquestionsExplainingwhyaprocedurewillworkShowingnonverbalcuesindicatingproficiencyScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCoachingScaffoldingEducational25FadingMonitoringstudent’sneedforassistanceDecreasingexplicitnessofinstructionTransferringdecisionmakingfromteachertocollaborativepair,tostudentPausingmoreandtalkinglessListeningandansweringquestions,ratherthaninstructinganddirectingScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionFadingScaffoldingEducationalP26InstructionalExampleofScaffoldingProceduralfacilitation–astructuredapproachtoimprovingstudents’useofelementsofthewritingprocessScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionalExampleofScaff27Web-BasedInquiringScienceEnvironment(WISE)Biology-GuidedInquiry(BGuILE)ScaffoldingwithTechnologyEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionWeb-BasedInquiringScienceEn28Assistivetechnology–anypieceofequipmentthatcanimprovethefunctionalityofachildwithadisabilityExample:text-to-speechsoftware(TTS)ScaffoldingforStudentswithSpecialNeedsEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionAssistivetechnology–anypie29AssessthedifficultyoflanguageininstructionalmaterialsModifyyourlanguageindiscussingcomplexissuesHelpstudentsaddresslanguageissuesontheirownEncouragetheuseofmetacognitionUsegraphicorganizersExplicitlyteachvocabularyfortheunitScaffoldingforStudentsfromDiverseBackgroundsEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionAssessthedifficultyoflangu30InstructionInfluencedbySocial-ConstructivistandSocioculturalTheoryCognitiveapprenticeshipsReciprocalteachingProblem-basedlearningClassroomcommunitiesEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionInfluencedbySoci31CognitiveApprenticeshipsApprenticeslearnfrommastercraftspersonsApprenticeslearnthroughobservation,coaching,andpracticeEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCognitiveApprenticeshipsAppre32ReciprocalTeachingBasedoncognitiveapprenticeshipsDialoguebetweenteachersandstudentsregardingsegmentsoftextComprehensionstrategies–prediction,clarification,summarization,questiongenerationEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionReciprocalTeachingBasedonco33Problem-BasedLearningAninstructionalstrategyinwhichstudentsworkincollaborativegroupstosolveacomplexproblemthatdoesnothaveasinglecorrectanswerEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionProblem-BasedLearningAninstr34ClassroomCommunitiesStudentshelpdesigntheirownlearningenvironment,includingchoosingcurriculaReciprocalteachingModifiedjigsawarrangementEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionClassroomCommunitiesStudents35IdealClassroomEnvironment:IndividualresponsibilitywithcommunalsharingRitual,familiar,participantstructuresCommunityofdiscourseMultiplezonesofproximaldevelopmentSeeding,migration,andappropriationofideasClassroomCommunitiesEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionIdealClassroomEnvironment:Cl36LearningOutofSchoolLearninginCulturalInstitutionsSocialinteraction,culturalnorms,anduseofavarietyoftoolsandartifactsExample:MuseumsPersonalhistoriesofmotivation,expectations,existingknowledge,interests,beliefs,andchoicesSocialfacilitationoflearning,culturalbackground,skills,valuedactivitiesPhysicalcontextoflarge-scaleenvironmentEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionLearningOutofSchoolLearning37TeachingwithCulturalInstitutions

Successofavisittoaninstitutiondependson:PlanningNatureoftheinstitution(e.g.artmuseums,zoos,scienceandhistorymuseums)HelpfulnessofstaffStudentsthemselvesClearunderstandingofwhatyouastheteacherwantstheclasstogetoutoftheexperienceSeeTakingittotheClassroomonpage286inyourtextforschoolvisitoptionsforculturalinstitutionsinCanadaLearningOutofSchoolEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionTeachingwithCulturalInstitu38YourTurnPlanatriptoanarboretumforyourclassofGrade6studentsUseallthestepsinvolvedinmakingitameaningfullearningexperienceWhatareyourgoals?Howwillyouensureyourgoalsareaccomplished?Howwillyouevaluateyoursuccess?EducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionYourTurnPlanatriptoanarb39CopyrightCopyright?2008JohnWiley&SonsCanada,Ltd.Allrightsreserved.ReproductionortranslationofthisworkbeyondthatpermittedbyAccessCopyright(theCanadiancopyrightlicensingagency)isunlawful.RequestsforfurtherinformationshouldbeaddressedtothePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&SonsCanada,Ltd.Thepurchasermaymakeback-upcopiesforhisorherownuseonlyandnotfordistributionorresale.Theauthorandthepublisherassumenoresponsibilityforerrors,omissions,ordamagescausedbytheuseofthesefilesorprogramsorfromtheuseoftheinformationcontainedherein.EducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCopyrightCopyright?2008John40EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY

REFLECTIONFORACTION

CanadianEdition

O’Donnell,D’Amico,Schmid,Reeve,SmithEDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY

REFLECT41CHAPTER8

SocialConstructivismandLearninginCommunityEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCHAPTER8

SocialConstructivis42Chapter8SocialConstructivismandLearningintheCommunityThemesforthechapterSociallearningemphasizestheabilitytolearnfromobservationScaffoldingisanintegralpartofsocialconstructivisttheoriesoflearningInformallearningenvironmentssuchasmuseums,artgalleries,andparksallowfamiliestotakepartintheirchildren’slearningEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionChapter8SocialConstructivis43GuidingQuestionsWhatissociallearningtheory?Whatisnecessaryforobservationallearningtooccur?Howisscaffoldingusedininstruction?Whatkindsofinstructionareinfluencedbysocialconstructivismandsocioculturaltheory?Howcanteachersusetheresourcesofculturalinstitutionseffectively?Canlearnerswithspecialneedsbenefitfromsocial-constructivistorsocioculturalapproachestolearning?Howcanteachersusescaffoldingtechniquestoworkwithdiverselearners?EducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionGuidingQuestionsWhatissocia44SocialLearningTheorySociallearning(Bandura,1977)isasynonymforvicariouslearningVicariouslearning–learningfromtheexperienceofanotherpersonVicariousreinforcement–ifanotherpersonisreinforcedforabehaviour,thelikelihoodofanobserverengaginginthatbehaviourisincreasedVicariouspunishment–ifanotherpersonispunished,thelikelihoodofanobserverengaginginthatbehaviourisdecreasedEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialLearningTheorySociall45Fourthingsthatstudentslearnthroughvicariousexperiences:NewbehavioursNewconsequencesPerformanceexpectationsSelf-talkSocialLearningTheoryEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionFourthingsthatstudentslear46Modelling–learningbywatchinganotherThreetypesofmodellingeffects:ObservationallearningInhibitoryanddisinhibitoryeffectsResponsefacilitationeffectsSocialLearningTheoryEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionModelling–learningbywatchi47Observationallearning–learningbyobservingotherindividualsTheobservermustseethemodel’sbehaviouraspositiveorusefulAmodelthathasstatusorprestigeandissimilartotheobserverismorelikelytobeimitatedAnobserverwhoisengaginginataskismorelikelytolearnfromamodelwhoisengaginginasimilartaskAnobserverwhoattendstoamodel’sbehaviourcloselyismorelikelytoacquirethatbehaviourModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionObservationallearning–learn48Observationallearning(continued)CognitiveApprenticeshipAninstructionalstrategyinwhichthelearneracquiresknowledgebymodellingtheactivitiesoftheteacherandbeingcoachedbytheteacherModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionObservationallearning(contin49InhibitoryEffectandDisinhibitoryEffectsInhibitoryEffect–thelikelihoodofastudentperformingapreviouslylearnedbehaviouraredecreasedDisinhibitoryEffect–thelikelihoodofastudentperformingapreviouslylearnedbehaviourareincreasedModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInhibitoryEffectandDisinhib50Responsefacilitationeffect–amodel’sbehaviourcanserveasadiscriminativestimulusfortheobserverandfacilitatetheobserver’sresponseModellingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionResponsefacilitationeffect–51ConditionsNecessaryforObservationalLearningAttention–attendtotheimportantfeaturesofthemodel’sbehaviourRetention–retaintheinformationthathasbeenobservedProduction–performanceoftheobservercomesclosertothatofthemodelMotivation–learnerseesthebehaviourasimportantorleadingtosuccessorreinforcementEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionConditionsNecessaryforObser52ModellingandTVViewingTVandAggressionLearnersimitatetheaggressivemodel,andboysaremoreaggressivethangirlsViewerschangetheirattitudesinfavoroftheuseofaggressiontosolveproblems,showdecreasedsensitivitytoviolenceandincreasedtoleranceforviolenceWatchingviolenttelevisioncanhavelong-termeffectsintoadulthoodEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionModellingandTVViewingTVand53InstructionalBenefitsandTVViewingTelevision-viewingexperiencescanincreaseunderstandingofaudienceUnderstandingofgenrecanincreaseTVcanbeusedtoteachpositiveskillsModellingandTVViewingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionalBenefitsandTV54SocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoryVygotsky’stheoryofcognitivedevelopmentarguesforadialecticalrelationshipbetweentheindividualandthesocialcontextinwhichachilddevelopsDialecticalrelationship:theparticipantshavemutualinfluenceononeanotherortheactorchangestheenvironmentinsomeway;thechangedenvironmentsubsequentlychangestheactorEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialConstructivismandSoci55SocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoriesThesetheoriesofhumanlearningemphasize:SocialparticipationCollectiveefficacy–ajointlyheldbeliefthatthecommunityiseffectivewhenworkingtogetherAuthentictasksinwhichlearningisembeddedAuthentictasks–tasksthatareconnectedtotherealworldEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialConstructivismandSoci56SocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoriesToolstosupportlearning–cognitiveactivityisdistributed,orshared,betweentheindividualsandthetoolstheyuseAffordance:apropertyofatoolorartifactthatallowsapersontoactinparticularwaysthatwouldnotbepossiblewithouttheuseofthetoolEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionSocialConstructivismandSoci57Tools:CanservearoleincommunicationsbetweenthemorecompetentandlesscompetentmembersofagroupIndistributedsystems,responsibilityforataskisdistributedamongparticipatingindividualsMayscaffolditsmembers’performanceandsupporttheiractivitySocialConstructivismandSocioculturalTheoriesEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionTools:SocialConstructivisman58TheRoleofExperienceTheexperiencesthatchildrenhaveintheircommunitymakeanimportantcontributiontotheircognitivedevelopmentInstructionislikelytobemoreeffectivewhenittakesaccountofstudents’previousexperiencesandinterestsExperiencehelpstosituatelearningwiththestudent’scultureEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionTheRoleofExperienceTheexpe59ScaffoldingThemorecompetentmemberscaffoldslearningofthelesscompetentmemberThelearnerandguidejointlycreateazoneofproximaldevelopmentinwhichthelearnerisabletoperformatalevelthatheorshecouldnotachievewithoutassistanceEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionScaffoldingThemorecompetent60ActivitiesTheguidewhoprovidesscaffoldingengagesinthreeactivities:ChannellingProvidingconstraintsduringthetasksothatthelearnerhasanincreasedlikelihoodofactingeffectivelyFocusingModellingScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionActivitiesScaffoldingEducation61FeaturesofappropriatescaffoldingIntentionalityAppropriatenessStructureCollaborationInternalizationScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionFeaturesofappropriatescaffo62InstructionthatConstitutesScaffoldingPlanning–structuringthelearningsituationforthestudentandmodelingexpertskillsCoaching–socialguidance,instruction,andcollaborationFading–transferofresponsibilityforproblemsolvingfromtheteachertotheever-more-proficientstudentScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionthatConstitutesS63PlanningChoosingactivitiesPlanningandstructuringSelectingtaskdifficultyDefiningthelearninggoalScriptingtaskinvolvementModelingtheactivityScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionPlanningScaffoldingEducational64CoachingOfferingtips,hints,pointers,assistanceSuggestingtaskstrategiesHelpingthestudentmaintainpursuitofgoalsbycalmingthemOfferingreminders,promptsAskingwell-timedquestionsExplainingwhyaprocedurewillworkShowingnonverbalcuesindicatingproficiencyScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCoachingScaffoldingEducational65FadingMonitoringstudent’sneedforassistanceDecreasingexplicitnessofinstructionTransferringdecisionmakingfromteachertocollaborativepair,tostudentPausingmoreandtalkinglessListeningandansweringquestions,ratherthaninstructinganddirectingScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionFadingScaffoldingEducationalP66InstructionalExampleofScaffoldingProceduralfacilitation–astructuredapproachtoimprovingstudents’useofelementsofthewritingprocessScaffoldingEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionalExampleofScaff67Web-BasedInquiringScienceEnvironment(WISE)Biology-GuidedInquiry(BGuILE)ScaffoldingwithTechnologyEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionWeb-BasedInquiringScienceEn68Assistivetechnology–anypieceofequipmentthatcanimprovethefunctionalityofachildwithadisabilityExample:text-to-speechsoftware(TTS)ScaffoldingforStudentswithSpecialNeedsEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionAssistivetechnology–anypie69AssessthedifficultyoflanguageininstructionalmaterialsModifyyourlanguageindiscussingcomplexissuesHelpstudentsaddresslanguageissuesontheirownEncouragetheuseofmetacognitionUsegraphicorganizersExplicitlyteachvocabularyfortheunitScaffoldingforStudentsfromDiverseBackgroundsEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionAssessthedifficultyoflangu70InstructionInfluencedbySocial-ConstructivistandSocioculturalTheoryCognitiveapprenticeshipsReciprocalteachingProblem-basedlearningClassroomcommunitiesEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionInstructionInfluencedbySoci71CognitiveApprenticeshipsApprenticeslearnfrommastercraftspersonsApprenticeslearnthroughobservation,coaching,andpracticeEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionCognitiveApprenticeshipsAppre72ReciprocalTeachingBasedoncognitiveapprenticeshipsDialoguebetweenteachersandstudentsregardingsegmentsoftextComprehensionstrategies–prediction,clarification,summarization,questiongenerationEducationalPsychology,CanadianEditionReciprocalTeachingBasedonco73Problem-BasedLearningAninstructionalstrategyinwhichstudentsworkincol