Chapter6Pragmatics

6.1Introduction

6.1.1Background6.1.2Definition

6.2Micropragmatics

6.2.1Reference（指稱）6.2.2Dexis（指示）6.2.3Anaphora（照應(yīng)）6.2.4Presupposition（預(yù)設(shè)）6.3Macropragmatics

6.3.1Speechacttheory（言語(yǔ)行為理論）6.3.2TheCooperativePrinciple（合作原則）6.3.3ThePolitenessPrinciple（禮貌原則）6.1IntroductionWhenadiplomatsaysyes,hemeans‘perhaps’;Whenhesaysperhaps,hemeans‘no’;Whenhesaysno,heisnotadiplomat.Whenaladysaysno,shemeans‘perhaps’;Whenshesaysperhaps,shemeans‘yes’;Whenshesaysyes,sheisnotalady.Voltaire(Quoted,inSpanish,inEscandell1993.)

speaker’smeaning/languageinuseAmelamed[/m?‘lɑ:m?d/，小學(xué)教師,Hebrewteacher]discoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse,sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife.Thenotereads:`Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy`.Whenthestudent

askedwhyhehadwritten`your`slippers,themelamedanswered:`Yold![Fool!]IfIwrote“my”slippers,shewouldread“myslippersandwouldsendherslippers.WhatcouldIdowithherslippers?SoIwrote“your”slippers,she'llread“yourslippersandsendmemine.”Backgroundof“Pragmatics”

CharlesMorris(1903–1979)wasconcernedwiththestudyofthescienceofsigns,whichhecalledsemiotic.Hedistinguished3branchesofsemiotics（符號(hào)三分法）:Syntaxaddressestheformalrelationsofsignstooneanother,semanticstherelationofsignstowhattheydenote,andpragmatics

therelationofsignstotheirusersandinterpreters.

Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.Inthisthree-partdistinction,onlypragmaticsallowshumansintotheanalysis.

Definitions1“Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeaker’smeaning.”2“Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning”3“Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid”4“Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance.”(Yule:2008).

Pragmaticsisastudyoflanguageinuse.6.2MicropramaticsIwaswaitingforthebus,buthejustdrovebywithoutstopping.Tostudythemeaningofsuchpiecesoflanguageinsmallercontextsiscalledmicropragmatics.Phenomenasuchasreference,deixis,anaphora,andpresupposition,arethetopicsinthisfield.

6.2.1ReferenceInthereferentialtheory(namingtheory),itisassumedthatthewordsweusetoidentifythingsareinsomedirectrelationshiptothosethings:(1)a:CanIlookatyourShakespeare?b:Sure,it’sontheshelfoverthere.(usenamesofpeopletorefertothings)Thekeyprocesshereiscalledinference.Aninferenceisanyadditionalinformationusedbythehearertoconnectwhatissaidtowhatmustbemeant.Inpragmatics,theactbywhichaspeakerorwriteruseslanguagetoenableahearerorreadertoidentifysomethingiscalledreference.

6.2.2DeixisDeixis(指示),whichmeans“pointing”vialanguage,theinterpretationofmanywordsandexpressionsbyreferencetothesituationalcontextoftheutterance.Anylinguisticformusedtodothis“pointing”iscalledadeicticexpression,orindexical.

InEnglish,wordslikehere,there,this,that,now,andthen,aswellasmostpronouns,suchasI,we,you,he,her,them.(2)You’llhavetobringthatbacktomorrow,becausetheyaren’there

now.Fivetypesofdeixis

1.

Persondeixis:me,you,him,them.2.

Timedeixis:now,then,tonight,lastweek.3.

Space/spatial/placedeixis:here,there,andyonder.4.

Discoursedeixis:temporal/spatialintheprevious/nextparagraph,orHaveyouheardthisjoke?inthischapter.5.Socialdeixis:honorifics(敬語(yǔ),ProfessorLi);kinshiprelationship(LiJie[李姐]inChinese

)Amelamed[小學(xué)教師,

Hebrewteacher]discoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse,sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife.Thenotereads:`Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy`.Whenthestudent

askedwhyhehadwritten`your`slippers,themelamedanswered:`Yold![Fool!]IfIwrote“my”slippers,shewouldread“myslippersandwouldsendherslippers.WhatcouldIdowithherslippers?SoIwrote“your”slippers,she'llread“yourslippersandsendmemine.”Anaphora(照應(yīng))iscoreferenceofoneexpressionwithitsantecedent.Theantecedentprovidestheinformationnecessaryfortheexpression’sinterpretation.

Thisisoftenunderstoodasanexpression“referring”backtotheantecedent.6.2.3Anaphora(3)A:CanIborrowyourdictionary?B:Yeah,it’sonthetable.

antecedent,anaphororanaphoricexpression.

indirectanaphororbridgingreference:(4)Iwalkedintotheroom.Thewindowslookedouttothebay.6.2.4PresuppositionPresupposition

(預(yù)設(shè)):

Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown.(TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage,1987)

（5）Susan’ssisterboughttwohouses.

ThissentencepresupposesthatSusanexistsandthatshehasasister.

Inanylanguage,therearesomeexpressionsorconstructionswhichcanactasthesourcesofpresuppositions.Thiskindofexpressionsorconstructionsiscalledpresupposition-triggers.

presupposition-triggers(預(yù)設(shè)觸發(fā)語(yǔ))(>>for“presupposes”):A.Definitivedescriptions（限定性描述）(6)Johnsaw/didn’tseethemanwithtwoheads.>>Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads.B.Factiveverbs（敘述動(dòng)詞）(7)Johnrealized/didn’trealizethathewasindebt.>>Johnwasindebt.C.Changeofstateverbs（狀態(tài)改變類動(dòng)詞）(8)Joanbegan/didn’tbegintobeatherhusband.>>Joanhadn’tbeenbeatingherhusband.D.Iteratives（重復(fù)）(9)Theflyingsaucercame/didn’tcomeagain.>>Theflyingsaucercamebefore.E.Temporalclauses（時(shí)間小句）(10)WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewas/wasn’tasleep.>>Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics.F.Cleftsentences（分裂句）(11)Itwas/wasn’tHenrythatkissedRosie.>>SomeonekissedRosie.G.Comparisonsandcontrasts（比較與對(duì)比）(12)Carolis/isn’tabetterlinguistthanBarbara.>>Barbaraisalinguist.6.3 MacropragmaticsMoreoftenthannot,wedon’tconfineourstudytoindividualutterances,butextendouranalysistolargerpiecesoflanguage,forthesimplereasonthatlanguageuseisanintricateprocess.

Theresearchontheanalysesoflargerchunksoflanguage,suchasawholeconversation,anarticleorevenachapterofanoveloroneactofaplayintheuserinteractionconcerningthemechanismsbywhichspeakers/writersencodetheirmessageinskilfulwaysandhowhearers/readersarriveattheintendedmeaningsinspiteofthedifferencesbetweentheliteralmeaningandtheintendedmeaningiscalledmacropragmatics.

Differenttheoriesinmacropragmatics:Speechacttheory（言語(yǔ)行為理論）TheCooperativePrinciple（合作原則）ThePolitenessPrinciple（禮貌原則）Philosophers,intheirsearchforanswerstotheirphilosophicalpuzzles,turnedtolanguagestudies.Theycameupwithseveralapproachestohowlanguageisusedandhowcertainproblemsseemtobeexplainedbylanguageinuse.Theyoftenrefertotheseapproachesasphilosophyoflanguagebutlinguistsprefertocallitpragmatics(macropragmatics).6.3.1SpeechacttheorySpeechacttheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.Speechacts:actionsperformedviautterances.(13)Youarefired.

J.L.AustinPerformativesandConstativesTrichotomyofSA（三分法）Illocutionaryact（言外行為）1）PerformativesandConstatives

（施為語(yǔ)：“做事”；陳述語(yǔ)：“陳說(shuō)”）

Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.Ibetyoutendollarsitwillraintomorrow.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Ineedthesalt.Constatives:sentencesthatareusedtostateordescribethings.Performatives:sentencesthatareusedtodothings.Thiskindofsentencescannotbetrueorfalse.Itisarguedthatevennon-performativesentencesareusedtoperformacts.(14)“It’ssuchafinedaytoday.”(suggestinganouting)Soitisclaimedthatallsentences,inadditiontowhatevertheymean,performspecificactionsor“dothings”throughspecificforces.2）ThreetypesofspeechactsAfterrejectingthedistinctionbetweenperformativesandconstatives,Austinputforwardhisnewmodel:aspeakerwhileproducinganutteranceisinmostcasesperformingthreeactssimultaneously.TypesofaspeechactDefinitionsExample:Isthisyourpen?(AsaystoB)Locutionaryact（發(fā)話行為/以言表意/言內(nèi)行為）

theactofsayingsomething,theliteralmeaningoftheutteranceTheactofutteringitwithitsliteralmeaning:‘Isthisyourpen?’Illocutionaryact（示意行為/以言行事/言外行為）：許諾、命令、請(qǐng)求、洗禮命名、宣布逮捕等——mostconcernedbySAtheextrameaningoftheutteranceproducedonthebasisofitsliteralmeaningItmaybearequestforBtopickupthepenonthefloor,orarequestforBtolendAthepen,dependingonthespecificcontext.Perlocutionaryact（取效行為/以言成事/言后行為）：恐嚇、侮辱、取笑、同情、勸誘等theeffectoftheutteranceonthehearer,dependingonspecificcircumstances.TheactualresultmayormaynotbewhatAintendedtohave.Canyoutellthedifferentspeechactsperformedintheutterances?（練習(xí)題）(15)Ibelieveheisinnocent.(16)Getoutofhere!(17)Nexttime,I’llarriveontime.(18)I’msorryforthetroubleIbroughttoyou.(19)Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.Infact,wemightutterittomakeastatement,arequest,anexplanation,orforsomeothercommunicativepurposes.Thisisalsogenerallyknownastheillocutionaryforceoftheutterance.Buthowdopeopleknowwhichspeechactisintended?Apossibleansweristospecifyfelicityconditions—circumstancesunderwhichitwouldbeappropriatetointerpretsomethingasaparticulartypeofspeechact.Forexample,ifagenuineorderhasbeengiven,thehearermustbephysicallycapableofcarryingitout(“Getmeastar”isnot),andmustbeabletoidentifytheobjectinvolved.

Theliteralmeaningistakencareofbysemanticsandtheeffectofanutteranceissubjecttomanyfactors,includingsocialpsychology,morethanlinguisticscancopewith.So,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithisillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations.(20)a.Husband:That’sthephone.b.Wife:I’minthebathroom.(illocutionaryact)c.Husband:Okay.3）Classificationofillocutionaryacts

J.R.Searle:suggestsfivebasiccategoriesofillocutionaryactsTypesExplanationS=speaker;X=situationExamplesrepresentativestatingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrueWordsfittheeternalworldSbelievesXa.Chomskydidn’twriteaboutpeanuts.b.Theearthisaglobe.directivetryingtogetthehearertodosomethingTheworldfitswordsSwantsXa.Openthedoor!b.GmissivecommittingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionTheworldfitswordsSintendsXa.Ipromisetogotheretomorrow.b.Iwillbuyapenforyou.expressiveexpressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateWordsfittheinternalworldSfeelsXa.I’mreallysorry.b.Congratulations!declarationbringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomethingWordschangetheworldScausesXa.Youarefired.b.Wefindthedefendantguilty.4）IndirectspeechactsAdifferentapproachtodistinguishingtypesofspeechactscanbemadeonthebasisofthethreebasicsentencestypes：(21)a.declarative:Youwearaseatbelt.(statement)errogative:Doyouwearaseatbelt?(question)c.imperative:Wearaseatbelt!(command/request)Wheneverthereisadirectrelationshipbetweenastructureandafunction,wehaveadirectspeechact.Adeclarativeusedtomakeastatementisadirectspeechact,butadeclarativeusedtomakearequestisanindirectspeechact.Forexample:(22)It’scoldoutside.a.Iherebytellyouabouttheweather.(statement:directspeechact)b.Iherebyrequestofyouthatyouclosethedoor.(request/command:indirectspeechact)(23)

Youdon’twanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV.Whatwillyousay?練習(xí)題a.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.Ican’tseethescreen.d.It’sharmfultoyoureyes.

Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.

Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication?Toensureasuccessfulcommunication,collaborationisanecessaryfactor.Inmuchoftheprecedingdiscussion,wehaveassumedthatspeakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationsaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Forexample,inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenersnormallyhavetoassumethataspeakerwhosays‘mycar’reallydoeshavethecarthatismentionedandisn’ttryingtomisleadthelistener.6.3.2Thecooperativeprinciple1）TheCooperativePrinciple(p.154)

H.P.Grice(1975)suggeststhatthereisasetofassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP).

Thecooperativeprincipleisstatedinthefollowingway:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Simply,CPmeansweshouldsaywhatistrueinaclearandrelevantmanner.2）ThemaximsA.Themaximofquantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).2.Donnotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.B.ThemaximofqualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.C.ThemaximofrelationMakesurethatwhateveryousayisrelevanttotheconversationathand.D.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous.1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).4.Beorderly.Examples:(24)Husband:Wherearethecarkeys?Wife:They’reonthetableinthehall.Inthemiddleoftheirlunchhour,onewomanasksanotherhowshelikesthehamburgersheiseating,andreceivestheanswerin:(25)Ahamburgerisahamburger.(quantity)Doyouthinkthisutteranceiscooperative?Whatcanyouinferredfromthesentence?3）Conversationalimplicature會(huì)話涵義AccordingtoGrice,utteranceinterpretationisnotamatterofdecodingmessages,butratherinvolves(i)takingthemeaningofthesentencestogetherwithcontextualinformation,(ii)usinginferencerules,and(iii)workingoutwhatthespeakermeansonthebasisoftheassumptionthattheutteranceconformstothemaxims.ThemainadvantageofthisapproachfromGrice’spointofviewisthatitprovidesapragmaticexplanationforawiderangeofphenomena,especiallyforconversationalimplicatures—akindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance.However,inactualspeechcommunication,itisoftenthecasethatspeakerscannotordonotobservetheCPanditsmaxims.(26)Heisatiger.(27)Tomhaswoodenears.Metaphorsandironyarestandardexamplesofthefloutingofthemaximofquality(違反質(zhì)準(zhǔn)則).Violationofthemaximofquantitybyprovidinglessormoreinformationthanisrequired(違反量準(zhǔn)則):(28)Girlsaregirls.(tautology.)(29)I’mAlexfromLeeds,26,unmarried.In(28),thehearerwouldinferfromthespecificcontextthatthespeakerprobablymeanthatgirlsarecareful,thoughtful,andconsiderateorliketotalkaboutshoppingandfashion.Ifamanintroduceshimselftoagirlataparty,asin(29),hewouldmakethegirlsuspiciousofhismotive.Themaximsofrelationandmannercanalsonotbeobserved(違反關(guān)系、方式準(zhǔn)則):(30)A:I’moutofpetrol.B:Thereisgarageroundthecorner.(31)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.[p157]6.3.3Thepolitenessprinciple(PP)(32)Youdon’twanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV.Whatwillyousay?（練習(xí)題）a.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.Ican’tseethescreen.d.It’sharmfultoyoureyes.

Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.

Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication?合作原則只說(shuō)明了交際者有意違反合作原則及其準(zhǔn)則可以獲得特殊的會(huì)話涵義。但是，卻并未解釋交際雙方為什么要這樣說(shuō)話。Inmostcases,theindirectnessismotivatedbyconsiderationsofpoliteness.Politenessisusuallyregardedbymostpragmatistsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Leech(1983:80)looksonpolitenessascrucialinaccountingfor“whypeopleareoftensoindirectinconveyingwhattheymean”.HethusthePolitenessPrinciple:FollowingGrice’spresentationoftheCP,LeechputsforwardsixmaximsofthePolitenessPrinciple:Minimize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefsandmaximize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs.MaximofTact

得體/策略準(zhǔn)則(indirectivesandcommissives)(i)Minimizecosttoother使他人受損最下(ii)Maximizebenefittoother使他人受惠最大(33)Travelandexpenseswillbepaidforand,ifyouwish,youcouldalsogiveaplenarypaper.（會(huì)議邀請(qǐng)函）MaximofGenerosity慷慨準(zhǔn)則(indirectivesandcommissives)(i)Minimizebenefittoself(ii)Maximizecosttoself(34).Theidealthingwouldbetodoatelnetchat,ifitweretobepossible.Butsinceyouareathome.That’sapromise.(為對(duì)方代勞工作)MaximofApprobation贊揚(yáng)準(zhǔn)則(inexpressivesandassertives)(i)Minimizedispraiseofother(ii)Maximizepraiseofother(35)Goodtohearfromyou.I’vejusthadaquicklookatyourwebpages.Looksgood!!MaximofModesty謙虛準(zhǔn)則

(inexpressivesandassertives)(i)Minimizepraiseofself(ii)Maximizedispraiseofself

Themaximofmodestyaccountsforthebenignnatureofutteranceslike(36)andtheoffensivenatureof(37).(36)Howstupidofme!(37)Howcleverofme!

MaximofAgreement一致準(zhǔn)則(inassertives)(i)Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother(ii)MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherRegulatedbythemaximofagreement,peopletendtoexaggeratetheircommongroundfirst,evenwhenmuchdifferenceistofollow:(38)A:Thebookisverywellwritten.B:Yes,wellwrittenasawhole,buttherearesomeratherboringpatches,don’tyouthink?Ifexpressingdisagreementisinevitable,thenspeakersattempttosoftenitinvariousways,byexpressingregretatthedisagreement.e.g.(39)I’msorry,butIcan’tagreewithyou.Inthisexample,theuseofthewordcan’tseemstoimplythatthespeakerwouldliketoagree.Speakersmayevenshowreluctancetospeakatallwhentheyknowtheywillbedisagreeing—theyuseexpressionssuchaswellatthebeginningoftheirutterancesorthey“humandhaw”.MaximofSympathy同情準(zhǔn)則(inassertives)